Science in Christian Perspective
The Tasaday and the Problem of Social Evolution
GEORGE J. JENNINGS
Geneva College Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
The discovery of different cultures characterizing various societies has led anthropologists to theorize as to the origin end development of the different ways of life. The finding of the "stone age" Tasaday in the Philippines further stimulates scholars to explore the problem as to why mankind has progressed through history at unequal rates with some groups showing minimal "advance" while others are quite dynamic, and have incorporated into their patterns of life more complex technological, economic, social, religious and other cultural forms. To the Christian scientist, the problem also involves a reconciliation of ethnological data with the Biblical account of the Fall of man and his subsequent experiences, many of which are not made explicit in Biblical statements.
From: JASA 24 (June 1972): 58-62.
The Discovery of the Tasaday People
The discovery of another "stone age" people in the
Philippines has stimulated
renewed interest among scholars and scientists in a study of man and
his cultures.
On June 7, 1971, Manuel Elizalde, head of the Philippine government's
Presidential
Arm on National Minorities (Panamin), and Dr. Robert B. Fox, head of Panamin's
research division and chief anthropologist for the Philippine Natural Museum,
visited the Tasaday tribe in the tropical forests of Mindanao. Their visit was
to investigate reports of this small group living in a Paleolithic
culture. Their
visits since the first one have confirmed reports by loggers and
neighboring tribesmen
that the Tasaday are a people who have lived a primitive life in isolation on
this southern Philippine island.
After initial visits, Elixalde and Fox indicate that the Tasaday are a gentle,
shy people who base their subsistence on hunting small game and gathering wild
fruits' and roots. Shallow, clearflowing streams provide tadpoles and
small fish
which the people trap with their bands without the use of books or
nets. No food
is cultivated and the staple of their diet is the pith of the wild palm. Monkey
meat is considered a delicacy. The monkey's hair is singed off in a fire (the
Tasaday apparently either know how to kindle a fire or how to preserve it) and
the meat cut away with bamboo blades sharpened by a small stone. The
meat is then
roasted over the open fire before it is consumed. Wild pigs and deer are also
trapped for their meat but information has not been given as to the nature of
the trapping techniques. Another important dietary item is wild yams which they
dig up with digging sticks (a dibble); they prefer the deeper yams
which are considered
most delicious.
The Tasaday group visited thus far represent only six families with a total of
thirteen children, nine of which are male. They report that their
name, Tasaday,
is derived from a mountain but the meaning of the word is yet
unknown. Preliminary
linguistic analysis by Fox reveals that their language is a variety
of the neighboring
Manuho tribe, which like all native Filipino languages, is in the
Malayo-Polynesian
family. Their language emphasizes strong vowel phonemes and
incorporates staccato
phonemes in a rhythmic linguistic pattern. Initially, conversation
was made possible
through a native of the Manubo tribe. After preliminary difficulty, the Manuho
tribesman rapidly learned the Tasaday language and could serve as an
interpreter.
Ethnographic Data
Among ethnographic data procured thus far, the following information is known.
The people are gentle and shy. They seem never to have heard of
fighting and have
had no contact with warlike tribes. In fact they apparently had known only one
other group which disappeared some years ago, possibly from some
epidemic disease.
The Tasaday are thus in character strikingly different from other
primitive tribes
reported in recent years by explorers, missionaries, and
anthropologists in inaccessible
areas of New Guinea, the Amazon Basin, and South-West Africa. For example, the
hostility of the Auca people in the upper reaches of the Amazon Basin has been
widely publicized following their slaying of missionaries in 1957.
Attacks, slayings
and cannibalism have also been experienced among certain hostile primitives in
New Guinea in recent years.
The Tasaday are further characterized by a religion which includes the belief
that someday the supernatural being, or god, called Diwata, would
personally visit
them and bring them help in their struggle for survival
as well as comfort to them in the trials of life. As a matter of
fact, they ascribe
to Elizalde the title of Diwata, believing that his coming is the fulfillment
of the promise made to their ancestors. The people view monogamy as the normal
form of marriage between a man and a woman, and this monogamous state
is to continue
until death. A young man ('who does not know his age but apparently
is about twenty
years old) served as an informant and expressed concern that he had
not yet acquired
a wife and seemed to feel that he had limited opportunities to do so
since there
are more single males than females.
This tiny tribe seems to have no political organization and no one dominates as
a formal leader. To settle such issues as moving in their nomadic
life, they hold
general meetings where discussion is followed by mutual agreement as
to the course
of action to be followed. It is premature to speculate on how the people handle
whatever personal aggression may result from group living and the
lack of formal
leadership.
The anthropologist, Fox, and other Panamin officials have expressed
concern about
the Tasaday who are now experiencing contacts with other cultures, especially
modern culture so different from their simple form of life. The officials are
requesting that the Philippine government make the Tasaday forest a reserve to
prevent loggers, bunters, miners, and farmers from exploiting the group. It is
common knowledge among anthropologists that much damage can be done
to so primitive
a people and their culture by recklessly exposing them to advanced technology,
society, and culture in general. Of course, evangelical Christians
will consider
missionary efforts among the Tasaday. It may he well for those who
will consider
evangelizing the people that they do not allow their zeal to obscure the need
for tactfulness and sound perspective in approaching a people who undoubtedly
should hear the Gospel, but who must not he subjected to the ravages
of thoughtless
culture change which on occasion has marked Christian missions among
peoples having
a different culture.
The Tasaday may he more nearly at a purely primitive stage than other
groups reported
in recent years, but they are certainly not the only example of
extreme cultural
retardation. For example, Paul Hoffman, in a report published in the New York
Times (June 15, 1971) describes a "South-West Africa Tribe Still
in the Stone
Age." His reference is to the Tjimba and Himha, two black tribes, which he
claims are the shyest and most backward of any contemporary African
people. Much
more populous than the Tasaday, these people number about 20,000.
They, too, are
hunters and gatherers for their subsistence. Their principal weapon is a spear
made doubly lethal by their knowledge and application of poison. Dr.
Johann Guildenhuis,
chief physician of the South-West African state, has visited the two tribes to
administer antibiotics and other modem drugs. According to him, the people are
remarkably healthy. He reports also that they have no money economy.
Their spear
heads are made from sharpened flints in a bone fide Paleolithic
tradition. Their
diet includes plants and small animals although the main source of food is the
wild zebra. Little other information is available from the Tjimba and Himba at
present, but they undoubtedly offer rich sources of ethnographic data
for anthropologists
in quest of characteristics of primeval 'cultures.
The Tasaday are strikingly different from other primitive tribes reported in recent years.
The Challenge of Social Evolution to Biblical Interpretations
Undoubtedly anthropological theory when applied to Tasaday data, as well as to
other primitives already studied or under the process of examination,
will present
a challenge to orthodox Christian views which postulate a process of
degradation
by mankind on the basis of Biblical interpretations. A classic
Biblical statement
frequently cited by orthodox Christians is Romans 1:15-32, This statement and
other similar ones are used to support the contention that man, at
least religiously,
has been marked by deterioration rather than progressive improvement
from a pristine
state of animism through polytheism to monotheism. The social
philosopher, Auguste
Comte, reflects evolutionary influences when he proposed a
three-stage progression
in human history from the religious through the metaphysical to the scientific
stage.
An analysis of the differing views of orthodox Christian thinkers and
social evolutionists
brings to the fore certain basic questions: If we assume a literal
Adam and Eve,
what was the cultural status of these progenitors of mankind and
their immediate
descendents? Are we justified in assuming that, following the Fall,
Adam and Eve
were essentially primitive in their manner of life in certain respects like the
Tasaday and other primitive groups which are becoming rarities in
this twentieth
century? Does not the Biblical record suggest cultural evolution
centered in religious
thought and practice from the events of Genesis to the New Testament
culture characterizing
Jesus and His followers? A couple of examples may illustrate this. One may cite
the case of marriage in the Old Testament and then in the New.
Polygynv was common
and accepted in ancient Israel, as well as among their
contemporaries, but monogamy
seems to have prevailed in the New Testament period when it was considered the
ideal form. Or again the notion of lex talionis (an eye for an eye,
etc.) in Old
Testament justice among the Hebrews (and other people of antiquity),
is replaced
by forgiveness and "turning the other cheek" in New
Testament teaching
and example.
Leaving this line of thought for the moment, e may note that the
basic assumption
held by most archaeologists is that there has been progression by mankind from
the Paleolithic through the Mesolithic and Neolithic into the
Chalcolithie, Bronze,
and Iron Ages prevailing at the rise of the first civilizations. Thus ,ve may
note that the archaelogist, V., Gordon Childe, assumed an evolutionary sequence
when he proposed such concepts to divide history as "The
Neolithic Revolution,
"The Urban Revolution," and "The Industrial
Revolution." These
"revolutions" represented dramatic transitions in man's progression
from early, simpler cultures to complex, modern types.
Recently Peacock and Kirsch treat social evolution in such terminology as the
"dimensions of modernization" (1970). In their scheme, the
more modern
a society, the more specialized are the social, political, and economic units
in the cultural organization. In the
transition from primitive to modern life, "social relations become to an
ever higher degree functionally specific, and to an ever lesser
degree functionally
diffuse." Also, as societies modernize, "markets and media
of exchange
become increasingly generalized." Centralization is another dimension of
modernization; that is, the more modern a society, the more centralized it is
under some central control. Furthermore as a society modernizes it
becomes increasingly
bureaucratized.
Peacock and Kirsch also assert that social evolution affects the
kinship and family
structure. In most modern societies, kinship is reckoned bilineally, whereas in
many nonmndern societies, especially primitive societies, kinship is reckoned
unilineally. In addition, the nuclear-family household, composed of parents and
unmarried children, is dominant after social evolution in contrast to
the extended
family that prevails in earlier and simpler social organizations. To put it in
other words, wherever modernization occurs, extended-family households may be
seen giving way to nuclear-family households, and with this change the emphasis
on kinship bonds diminishes, while the emphasis on conjugal bonds increase.
The process of modernization within the scope of social evolution includes the
three factors of social differentiation, social mobility, and social
change. Social
differentiation (the separation of social units from one another)
issues in part
from the growing specialization of units which accompanies
modernization. Social
mobility is the movement of individuals between the strata of society. It seems
quite certain that with social evolution both the idealized rate of
mobility and
the actual rate tend to rise; not only do people think they can rise (or fall)
faster in the social milieu but they actually can. In terms of social change,
the more modern a society is, the more rapid is its overall rate of change-hi
short, it is dominated by social dynamism.
Social evolution also has its impact on religion and ideology. With the changes
taking place through time, the trend among dynamic societies is
toward a universalistic
ethic which decrees that men must he judged on the basis of merit and
skill, rather
than on the basis of some immutable status assigned to them at birth.
Not kinship,
race, sex, or caste, but deeds are what count in a universalistic ethic. Where
such statuses count more than deeds, the reference is to a
particularistic ethic.
Today, in many of the developing nations, the act of becoming modern
is strongly
bound up with the notion of universalism. Undoubtedly the Tasaday
people are essentially
particularistic while in contemporary Western culture, the ideals are generally
universalistic. There is a second broad ideological trend that
accompanies social
evolution. The more modern a society, the less will its members
believe that their
society exercises control over their cosmos, or ideal system. The less modern
the society, the more they will perceive or believe such control exists. Thus
the Tasaday will perceive undoubtedly little separation between the
cosmic world,
which they most likely express by myth and some ritual, and the actual world,
in which they live.
Finally, social evolution has an important relation to technology. A society is
technologically advanced to the extent that it employs tools and
inanimate power
sources. It is unlikely that the primitive technology of the Tasaday includes
power resources derived from gravity, wind, and water (to say nothing
of electricity,
60
JENNINGS
steam, and nuclear energy). Their source of power is human strength and energy.
Again their tools, as yet not inventoried, are extremely simple with
perhaps the
dibble (digging stick) the major tool. This is a far cry from the jet airplane
or the electric computer. Technological modernization accompanies the
social evolutionary
process.
Does not the Biblical record suggest cultural evolution centered in religious thought and practice from the events of Genesis to the New Testament culture?
Social Evolution and the Direction of World History
A comparison of the Tasaday and similar primitive societies provides
a scientific
basis upon which to relate social evolution and the direction of world history.
The more modern the society, the greater is its capacity to change rapidly in
order to exploit a rapidly changing environment. This fact is in the thinking
of the anthropologist Fox, who views with concern an unlimited introduction of
innovations among the Tasaday who presumably with tradition-bound
patterns could
not change rapidly without possible cultural chaos and social disorganization.
Modern sociocultural patterns-partly because they encourage high technological
development, which in turn makes possible a quick, effective response to such
upheavals as floods, war, and population explosion, and partly
because they encourage
a general flexibility and capacity for rapid changemaximize a society's ability
to adapt.
Assuming the above argument is true, consider the principle of
natural selection
that has emerged from studies of biological evolution. This principle maintains
that over time a population tends to display more and more the traits
of its most
adaptive members, since it is these which are most likely to survive
and reproduce
their traits. Since the less adaptive members tend not to survive and
reproduce,
their traits disappear over time. An analogous principle may operate
for societies.
The most hightly adaptive societies at any period of history will be the ones
that survive and reproduce by disseminating their patterns.
Therefore, these patterns
become more and more widespread, while the patterns of the less
adaptive societies
become less common. In our own time, the modern patterns are
increasingly prominent,
while during the past six or seven thousand years the trend has been away from
the primitive pattern. As in the case of the Tasaday, a primitive
pattern persists
only when protected by isolation. According to one estimate, only six percent
of the worlds people still live in primitive societies. The finding of the most
primitive of societies like the Tasaday is decreasing (hence the
greater interest
in them and others of like cultural level).
Having made the analogy between natural selection in the theory of biological
evolution and in sociocultural evolution, we must emphasize that this is only
an analogy. Aanalogies are meant to suggest hypotheses, not to prove
them (Nagel,
1961:107-117). The applicability of these statements to theoretical biological
evolution is no proof that they are equally applicable to
sociocultural evolution. Sociocultural statements must be judged on their own
terms.
Sociocultural evolution appears to be moving in a different direction from that
theorized in biological evolution. Biological evolution is often likened to a
branching tree, with more and more branches appearing as evolution
proceeds. Thus,
insects have branched out (undergone adaptive radiation), it is held, to such
a degree that today some 600,000 insect species exist. By contrast,
sociocultural
evolution appears to he converging into a single "species." The trend
seems to be one in which all societies will eventually assume the
modern pattern.
In the ease of primitives like the Tasaday, the objective is to prevent chaos
and decimation under modern impact that would destroy them.
A second difference between biological and sociological evolution is that men's
motives and plans play a more important role in the sociocultural process than
in the biological scheme of things. Since the principle of natural selection is
advanced to explain the evolution of all animals, it does not consider motive
and plan as possible causes. The principle of natural selection recognizes only
that if by accident, mutation, or other process a more adaptive trait
or pattern
appears, that trait or pattern will tend to he perpetuated. No
assumption is made
about how the trait or pattern originated, and the biologist is
particularly wary
of talking as if the organism in which a given trait or pattern originated had
planned it that way. Of course, the teleological problem is unanswered by those
who reject divine superintendency of the theoretical process. We cannot engage
our attention to this problem in this paper, but rather we must take
into account
the observation of Redfield and others that the more modern the
society, the greater
the capacity of its members to control their destinies, to move in
the direction
of consciously established goals (1953). Hence when an overwhelming number of
today's developing societies (and we may predict that the Tasaday will become
such) say they yearn to modernize, we cannot ignore this yearning in predicting
the direction in which the world's societies are likely to move. Of
course, modernizing
societies mourn the loss of their traditions, but at the same time
many recognize
that in the face of population pressures and other environmental
threats, modernization
is the only way to survive. Not only the objective observer but also
the natives
of societies involved recognize the adaptive advantage of modern patterns.
Sociocultural evolution appears to be moving in a different direction from that theorized in biological evolution.
Arguments such as this have inspired Marion J.
Levy, Jr., in his Modernization and the Structure of
Societies, to brand the modern pattern a "universal
solvent." Levy claims
that when a nonmodern society comes in contact with a modern society,
the non-modern
society inevitably modernizes, whereas the modern society never
"demodernizes."
Levy believes that this occurs because every society, no matter how spiritual
its values, contains some individuals who want the material
advantages which modern
patterns produce. The
But modernization is like a dye which, upon touching one thread, is
slowly absorbed
until it changes the color of the whole cloth. Adopting modern
technology to gain
material advantage soon results in changes in family structure, government, and
other institutions. According to Levy, only romanticists (and naive
missionaries)
could believe that part of a society can modernize while the rest
remains entirely
intact. Although societies such as Japan apparently do segregate
modernizing sectors
and traditional sectors for a time, it is doubtless true that such segregation
cannot endure forever. The American Indians have been remarkably
adamant in resisting
certain ideologies of the whites after centuries of contact, but it is doubtful
that they will be able to maintain an ethos that fails to mesh with that of the
dominating society. It seems quite probable that eventually all societies will
thoroughly modernize. There is thus a great challenge to evangelical Christians
to maintain their attempts to evangelize and retain an effect in the moderruzed
culture of which they are a part, the effect called "salt"
and "light"
by Jesus to His disciples.
Although this view of world history, according to which all societies
will eventually
conform to the modern pattern (with its materialistic and secularistic ethos),
may be too simplistic, it seems better founded on ethn&ogieal data than the
idea that there is no discernible direction to the transformations of today's
societies. Modernization theory calls into question the belief that
every society
is developing along its own unique path according to its own unique genius.
Today's stagnating societies such as the Tasaday might be happily stagnating in
3000 A.D. But with the onrush of modernization fewer and fewer backwaters, or
cul de sac locations, in which to hide will remain. Modernization
tends to integrate
all regions of the world into one system. Older readers may easily recall the
"One World" of the late Wendell Wilkie. The few primitive societies
found today remain primitive partly because they have been able to retreat into
the jungles, deserts, or mountains and avoid the advance of modernity; but as
modernity pushes further these havens too will he lost. The Tasaday
have in essence
lost their haven even if the Philippine government establishes their forest as
a reserve. This will merely postpone modernization. Indeed, just as the pace of
technological innovation has accelerated steadily since human history
began (Blum,
1967: 211, 219), so the process of sneineultural change itself has accelerated.
As the world becomes more nearly a single system, changes in one
sector instantly
excite changes in the other sectors. Exotic societies such as the
Tasaday, therefore,
seem to be doomed.
Social Evolution and the Idea of Progress
In general, Americans have concluded that modernization, which is dominated by
the multiplication of technological devices, means the better life.
This opinion
prevailed until recently when the view that change can be equated with progress
is increasingly challenged. Some scholars have become disillusioned
by socincultural
conditions attending modern civilizatiois. The enormity of
contemporary urbanization,
the ruthless exploitation of natural resources, the impersonal
character of social
relationships, the threatening power and control of gigantic corporations and
labor unions, the bureaucratization of complex governmental organiza
tion,
We are tempted to say that there is an inverse ratio between technological progress and the spiritual state of man as conceived in Biblical statements.
the crescendo of crime, the decline in the spiritual ethos, and
many other
adverse features characterizing modern life cause fear and anxiety to the point
of neuroses end even psychoses to growing numbers of people. Much of
modern life
is marked by socioeultural upheaval that prevents equanimity and
inner contentment.
The discovery of a primitive people such as the Tasaday creates a yearning by
restless modern man for a less complex and threatening context of
circumstances.
Such yearning stems from the assumption that the Tasaday life is free
from problems
and stresses, at least relatively so. That the Tasaday escape certain problems
such as environmental pollution, impersonal relationships, rampant
crime, insecurity
of employment, aimlessness in life stemming from secularism and
materialism, along
with other factors which plague civilized man, is quite probable. But
the preliminary
information gained from the Tasaday suggests that their life is not one marked
by complete euphoria. For example, it is reported that they
anticipated the visit
of the god, Diwata, who was to bring aid to relieve them of life's
problems which
probably loom as large in their thinking as do problems to modern
man. It is quite
likely that further study of the Tasaday will reveal tensions and stresses not
immediately observable, The Pueblo Indians who live in the American Southwest
were initially viewed as a people marked by peace, cooperation, and equanimity.
Subsequent studies corrected the earlier and idealized
characterization by pointing
out that aggression, hostility, fear and conflict are present among
these desert
dwellers. The anthropologist needs to be wary of allowing initial impressions
to obscure reality to be obtained by intensive ethnological study.
As a Christian anthropologist, the writer is concerned with the
problems attending
social evolution and modernization; for, in assuming the
responsibility as a student
of society and culture, he cannot ignore the spiritual dimension in determining
what is to be considered progress. A critical question is this: Has the process
of social evolution and modernization contributed to greater satisfaction, or
contentment, than earlier and simpler patterns of life? Euphoria is a difficult
state to measure since it is highly subjective in nature and it is very elusive
when we consider the remarkable adaptability of man who has demonstrated that
he can operate in a broad range of socincultural circumstances. We
must also ask
this question: Can we compare the state of contentment experienced by
an affluent
suburbanite in the American culture with that of the primitive
Tasaday? What criteria
are valid and reliable in measuring the differences in culture?
Within the context of Christian convictions and Biblical statements (which are
fundamental to the writer's opinion), the answers must revolve about
the spiritual
dimension. It is, therefore, not a question of whether the Tasadayan dibble can
be compared with the suburbanite's computer, but rather whether the two
individuals in contrasting sociocultural stations have an
appreciation of spiritual
truth which the writer claims to be dependent upon Biblical
information. The American
suburbanite may conclude that he enjoys the fruit of progress in his
technological
conveniences while his covert personality may be marked with
insecurity and anxiety
unknown to tlse simple Tasadayan who lacks the conveniences. The only
resolution
of the problem of progress in social evolution seems to be in terms of a man's
ultimate satisfaction or peaceful state of mind. This peace of mind rests upon
the Biblical adage that man does not live by bread alone.
Has modernization through social evolution delivered man from his fundamental
problem? Has the history of mankind been marked with increasing
euphoria? According
to the Apostle Paul, the evolution of society and culture has not been marked
by progress if we see progress as synonymous with spiritual
improvement and equanimity.
The fact of the matter is that there seems to be retrogression rather
than progress.
We are tempted to say that there is an inverse ratio between
technological progress
and the spiritual state of man as conceived in Biblical statements.
Thus we read
what the Apostle prognosticates in relation to social evolution and
modernization
in II Tim. 3:1-9.
Social evolution leading to modernization has not introduced this repertoire of
ungodliness listed by Paul. These sins were known and practiced in antiquity as
attested to by the Old Testament account. The fact of the matter is that we may
infer comparable commissions prevailing in the days of Noah, conditions which
climaxed in the judgment upon that civilization by the Flood. Every perceptive
student of history knows about the almost endless occurrence of sins depicting
the viciousness of man, or as the aphorism has it, man's inhumanity
to man. What,
then, are we to understand about social evolution, modernization, and the moral
state of man in contemporary civilization? We must not conclude
naively that the
Tasaday and similar groups are completely virtuous and free from sin.
Ethnological
data sustains the contention of the Apostle Paul in Romans 3:12, "All have
turned aside, together they have gone wrong; no one does good, not
even one."
The most reasonable conclusion before us is that social evolution has
been accompanied
by modernization with an intensification and multiplication of what
has been characteristic
of man since the Fall. The Tasaday, by isolation and retardation, have escaped
the ravages of rampant sin characterizing man in contemporary civilization, but
they are not to be considered innocent children of nature. The
perspectives open
to man may either be to attempt to retreat to the sncincultural level
of primitive
life as exemplified by the Tasaday (actually this is impossible to achieve), or
to anticipate a "new heavens and a new earth in which
righteousness dwells"
(II Peter 3:13).
REFERENCES
Beaver Falls, Pa., News-Tribune, July 17, 1971.
Blum, Harold F.
On the Origin and Evolution of Human Culture. In Read
ings on Social Change edited by Wilbert E. Moore and Robert M. Cook. Englewnnd
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 1967.
Lev
y, Marion J., Jr.
Modernization and the Structures of Societies (2 vols.)
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 1966.
Nagel, Ernest The Structures of Science: Problems in the Logic of
Scientific Explanation.
New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. 1961.
The New York Times, June 15, 1971, and July 18, 1971.
Peacock, James L., and A. Thomas Kirsch The Human Direction. New
York: Appleton-CenturyCrafts.
1970.
Redfield, Robert The Primitive World and Its Transformations.
Ithaca. N.Y.:
Corncll University Press. 1953.