Science in Christian Perspective

 

 
JASA BOOK REVIEWS For March 1961
Table of Contents
The Principles of Scientific Research, by Paul Freedman; Pergamon Press, Inc., New York, Second Edition, 1960; 288 pp.; $4.50.
Self-Organizing Systems: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Conference, edited by Marshall C. Yovits and Scott Cameron; Pergamon Press, Inc., New York, 1960; 322 pp.; $8.50.
Christianity and the Scientist, Ivan G. Barbour, Chairman of the Department of Religion and Associate Professor of Physics, Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota. Published by Association Press, New York; 1960; 128 pp.

The Principles of Scientific Research, by Paul Freedman; Pergamon Press, Inc., New York, Second Edition, 1960; 288 pp.; $4.50.

Reviewed by Walter R. Hearn, Associate Professor of Biochemistry, Iowa State University, Ames.

I was attracted to this book by its title because of my desire to compile a short reading list for my graduate students of significant but entcrtaining books dealing with philosophical, social, and "political" aspects of science. The author was a British electrical engineer who apparently spent most of his research career in industrial laboratories; his son has up-dated the original (1948) edition by adding accounts of recent developments to the historical section and some tables of current information to the section dealing with sources of support for science.

The author stresses throughout that ability to do first-class research is not shared equally by all scientists. His purpose in writing is largely -to encourage young scientists who may have the gift not to give up science before they find opportunities to develop and use their gift. Unfortunately, I found the book as dull as some young Britishers apparently find their early years in scientific careers! A much more enjoyable way of getting a glimpse of the principles of scientific research in an English setting is to read C. P. Snow's fascinating novel, The Search. However, several aspects of the book were of interest to me. Instead of a historical account of science itself, a short history of "research" is presented, the author attempting to sort out real innovators in science from mere accumulators of knowledge. Some of the choices and omissions inevitably seem arbitrary in spite of efforts to justify them. The difference between a scientific and a theological approach to questions is pointed out acceptably, and the tendency of scientific orthodoxy to establish itself and stifle further investigation is also noted.

I was perhaps most fascinated by the chapter on research and philosophy because of a parallel to some of our A.S.A. discussions on the subject. Freedman was apparently quite eager to base his research on the philosophy of dialectical materialism, just as many of us are trying to relate our research directly to our Christian philosophical position. He eventually gave it up, largely because of "the inherent nature of scientific reasoning." Some of us have come to the same conclusion, I think: "Successful scientific reasoning appears always to require as its starting point a consideration of available data relating to the specific problem, and not an attempt to apply to the particular problem general laws of the entire universe, however true and important those laws might be."

A few helpful suggestions are found in chapters on the mental approach, planning and organizing research, making a choice between accuracy and economy, and determining the minimum number of essential observations. One point seldom discussed elsewhere ishow to estimate the amount of time necessary to "finalize" a piece of research before going on to something else. Most of these points are illustrated by examples from the author's own experience, and indeed, the examples are much more helpful than the tiresome categorizing into types of problems, types of investigators, types of research teams, etc. I have the feeling that if a young scientist had enough experience to appreciate these categories, he would also already know what the book is trying to tell him. In my own experience, discussions of such matters as "how to apply statistics in research" seem completely useless until I am faced with a particular problem and am looking for a particular statistical method.

The one chapter I would like for my students to read is the chapter on general conditions of experimentation; an example of the "Socratic method" of dialogue between research workers is given that is really choice. The real excitement and challenge of scientific. research comes through in that example better than anywhere else in the book.

 

Self-Organizing Systems: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Conference, edited by Marshall C. Yovits and Scott Cameron; Pergamon Press, Inc., New York, 1960; 322 pp.; $8.50.

Reviewed by Walter R. Hearn, Associate Professor of Biochemistry, Iowa State University, Ames.

Most readers of this book will probably have as much trouble as I did trying to understand the technical points made in individual papers, but that is to be expected when chapters by zoologists, psychologists, electrical engineers, and mathematicians all appear in the same book. "Who is sufficient for these things?" But -the over-all impact of the book should get through to all of us in the A. S.A. who have been thinking about the nature of life and the nature of man: model systems can be constructed which have the ability to "organize themselves," to sense their environment and adapt -to changes in it, and to "learn" to discriminate between stimuli. The limitations of present understanding of such systems are freely admitted in the papers and further revealed in discussion following each paper, but this admission does not detract at all from the impression that ext~emely useful theoretical generalizations are beginning to be made about how life processes work, including processes in the human brain.

One of the most readable papers is by H. von Foerster on the relationship of self-organizing systems to their environments. His paper begins with the thesis: "There are no such things as self-organizing systems!" He means this in the sense that such systems do not violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, but merely appear to because of failure to consider the environment as part of the system. If the self-organizing system is considered to be "that part of a system that eats energy and order from its environment," and if it is realized that the environment is real and has structure, then it is all right to say that some systems do increase their internal order. With some ingenious illustrations he shows how order can arise from apparently random processes in a model; a later paper by the embryologist Robert Auerbach describes beautifully a simple "living" systern which illustrates the point even better. The most biochemically-oriented paper is by Stanford Goldman on cybernetic aspects of homeostasis, dealing specifically with the problem of how blood glucose concentration is controlled in the mammalian body. Goldman is in a department of electrical engineering!

Most of the book is concerned with analogs of brain function. Titles of some of these papers are: "Self-Organizing Models for Learned Perception," "A Variety of Intelligent Learning in a General Problem Solver," "Blind Variation and Selective Survival as a General Strategy in Knowledge-Processes," and "The Natural History of Networks." A. M. Uttley sums up the area covered by the conference in a short final address entitled "The Mechanization of Thought Processes," closing with some of the questions which will be raised in the mind of the ordinary man~by this kind of research: Will unemployment result from the development of automata? Shall we make brains? Are we debunking man? In my opinion, evangelical Christians capable of understanding some ofthe scientific problems involvedhere owe it to the rest of the Christian community to prepare themselves for some hard thinking about these things, lest new warfare between science and theology spring up and our theologians, unprepared, find themselves fighting in unfamiliar territory once again, and once again have to retreat. Reading this book carefully is as good a place to begin as any I know of.

Christianity and the Scientist, Ivan G. Barbour, Chairman of the Department of Religion and Associate Professor of Physics, Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota. Published by Association Press, New York; 1960; 128 pp.

This is one of the Haddam House Series on the Christian in His Vocation.

You do not read this book to develop a Christian apologetic from observations of natural science but rather to view yourself as a scientist who is putting his Christian principles in practice in his vocation "to serve human need, to seek truth, to work for a better society, and to worship God." Barbour discusses each of these elements in a concise and forceful manner.

Research should investigate any field, even if its results can be detrimental to man, for it is likely that most accomplishments can be turned to man's benefit, and the scientist needs to lend his influence toward the proper use of his findings. The problem of national policy and nuclear warfare is an illustration. Even the value of space research is considered.

The ethical requirements of scientific activity are rationality and honesty, universality and co-operation, disinterestedness and open-mindedness, and freedom.

Other significant topics treated are: the science teacher and the student (in which the author discusses teaching the methods of science, religious implications in science courses, and relationship of students and faculty) ; science and the social order (ideas on freedom in science and society, worship of technology, and science and national policy) ; and the scientist as a person (who has pressures on the job, whose beliefs are influenced by science, and whose religious faith should include personal involvement and reflective detachment).

Barbour mentions the American Scientific Affiliation in two connections, as an example of Biblical conservatism, and as a group stressing the evidence of design.

This book will give you an increased. appreciation of your status in church and community and your sense of duty toward them.

Available from A.S.A. Lbrarian, R. Mixter, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois.