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What is now needed is a new generation of historians of science capable of following the truth as dispassionately as their scientific colleagues believe themselves to be doing, unafraid of where their inquiries may lead them. 

For the Christian, the use of history for apologetic purposes is surely as legitimate as arguments based on anything else (nature, aesthetics, moral imperatives etc.). 

But such history must be marked by honesty, integrity painstaking attention to detail and a scrupulous regard for alternative interpretations.

 Nothing else is worthy of the Lord of nature who is also Lord of history.
Colin Russell--1993

| Medieval | ASA history | Seventeenth century | Nineteenth Century | Twentieth century | Late Twentieth  and Early Twenty First Centuries |
   |Darwin Studies | bibliography | Home | member obituaries|   

Historical Studies of Science and Christianity

INTRODUCTION

The Christian church has had a continuing concern for the relation between God, man, and  nature. Since Western science emerged in cultures dominated by Christianity we might ask how Christianity influenced attitudes toward nature and the practice of what was later to be called science (earlier, natural philosophy). It is also important to discover the ways that an  increasing knowledge of nature has influenced Christian thought.

Although we also offer some basic studies in the areas of philosophy, general history and the sociology of science, the focus of this page is on the interaction of religion (mainly Christianity) on science, medicine, and engineering fields.

The articles are arranged along chronological lines with additional categories for major fields of interest such as evolutionary biology and the history of the ASA. You may use the search engine on the home page and the ISIS Bibliographic Index for additional information.

Our keynote paper by English, Chemist-Historian Colin Russell aptly focuses on the value of  history in understanding toady's science/faith concerns. American historians of science  David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers offer a seminal statement on the 'conflict thesis' in Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and  Science.

We offer a selection of papers from Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith (PSCF) and other sources that illustrate the wide-ranging scope of the subject, plus a dialogue on Desmond and Moore's best-selling Darwin, a mini-symposium on the science interests of British evangelical pioneer John Wesley, a selection of papers on ASA history  and a bibliography from which the field may be explored in detail.

16 Oct 2007

Public Spectacle and Evolutionary Theory: The Fortunes of Darwinism in the Calvinist Cultures of Victorian Edinburgh and Belfast (46 min. + discussion)--Faraday Institute

Dr David Livingstone

MP3 file

  General Articles

Medieval contexts

Richard P. Aulie, "Al-Ghazali Against Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture  to Science in Eleventh-Century Baghdad," PSCF 46.1:26-46 (3/1994) The year was A.D. 1091, the city was Baghdad, and a thirty-three year-old scholar, whose reputation for Greek learning and religious piety had preceded him, was arriving by caravan from the east. His name was Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Tusi al-Ghazali. He was born in Persia. He wrote and spoke Arabic. His religion was Islam.¹ And what he wrote during the next four years played a definite, though unforeseen rule in the origin of modern science. ...

Seventeenth century

John Ray (1628-1705) The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of Creation,  1691 (e-book )

John R. Armstrong, "Rediscovering John Ray (1627-1705) PSCF 41.2:105-107 (6/1989) John Ray (1627-1705) became a teaching fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge in 1649, an ordained Church of England minister in 1660. His Puritan sympathies, however, prevented him from signing an agreement with 1662 restrictions upon liturgy under the Act of Uniformity, so that his employment ended (Faul & Faul, 1983, p. 47). Turning to science, he produced the major botanical reference of his generation, met and corresponded with leading scientists across Western Europe. and tutored for a wealthy family. Honesty, thoroughness, humility, and gentleness pervade his writings: he repeatedly acknowledged incomplete understanding and demonstrated a willingness to revise his opinions whenever evidence warranted a different interpretation.

David L. Woodall, "The Relationship between Science and Scripture in the Thought of Robert Boyle," PSCF, 49 (March 1997): 32 - 39. The writings of Robert Boyle advance the thesis that Christianity in seventeenth- century England advocated and facilitated scientific development. As a scientist and theologian, he rejected the popular view that the Bible was a scientific textbook and yet believed in the absolute harmony between scientific statements in the Bible and experimental science. Conflicts between the two were explained as either a mistake in science or an incorrect interpretation of Scripture. Boyle followed Calvin's view of accommodation.

Stephen David Snobelen, Newton Reconsidered (2005) Comments on recent scholarship about Newton's theological views.

Eighteenth century (coming)

The Isaac Newton Collection (digital)

Nineteenth century

February 16, 2012

David C. Bossard, "The Stones Cry Out: How Early Christian Geologists  Enlarged their Understanding of the Creation Account," IBRI Research Report #57 (2006). The development of modern geology in the early 1800s challenged traditional Biblical interpretation in a way that no other  advance in science had. Over the centuries, there had been many philosophical challenges to Biblical revelation -- the nascent higher  criticism of the Biblical text, and many Christian and secular world  views as (then) recent examples -- but these are all based on  philosophical particulars that cannot be refuted objectively. Never before had such an extensive, sustained and comprehensive assault on tradition been fortified with such an abundance of irrefutable  factual data, which could be tested and affirmed by all, even those  with radically clashing world views. How, then, did devout Christians process this challenge?

John R. Armstrong, "William Buckland in Retrospect"  PSCF 42.1:34-38 (3/1990) The Reverend Dr. William Buckland (1784-1856) profoundly influenced the historical sciences of geology and paleontology as an Oxford professor during most of the major controversies-neptunist/plutonist, catastrophist/uniformitarian, glacial, and creation/evolution. His theology remained orthodox, while his perspectives adapted to the latest developments in science. ... 

Michael B. Roberts: Genesis and Geology Unearthed,15 December 2002. The challenge of Geology to Genesis is often perceived to be one of the issues of the "Victorian Crisis of Faith". Geologists had, since Charles Lyell had published his Principles of Geology in 1831, been demonstrating that the age of the earth was somwat oldwe than Archbishop Ussher's Six Thousand Years. ...

Mark A. Kalthoff, "John Henry Newman on Christianity, Science and Intelligent Design,"  PSCF 53 (March 2001): 14 - 23. Although much scholarship treats Newman's thought and Victorian science separately, little has been written about both; and no historian of science and religion has provided a focused study of Newman's 1855 lectures. This paper contributes to such a study. After a brief introduction to Newman and the context of his 1855 lectures, this paper provides a critical summary and analysis of Newman's thought on science and Christianity as presented in those lectures. It concludes by suggesting ways Newman's thought may contribute to contemporary discussions of Intelligent Design theory.

Philip Eichman, "The Christian Character of Michael Faraday as Revealed in His Personal Life and Recorded Sermons","PSCF 43.2: 92-95 (6/1991)
During his scientific career Michael Faraday was a well-known public figure. For more than a century now, his scientific activities have been studied and described by various authors. There was another, more private aspect of Michael Faraday - his religious beliefs and activities. Contemporaries, such as Tyndall, Gladstone, and others have given us some insights into Faraday's personal life and character. However, little has been written regarding his religious activities. As an elder in the Sandemanian church, Faraday often presented sermons, or "exhortations," as they were called. Only a few of these have been preserved, but those that have been give us a view which is quite different from the typical biographical information. Here we see not Michael Faraday, the scientist, but Michael Faraday, the Christian.

Michael Keas, Darwinism, Fundamentalism, and R. A. Torrey PSCF 62 (March 2010):  25-51.   R. A. Torrey (1856–1928), a leading world evangelist at the turn of the twentieth century, played a prominent role in the emergence of fundamentalism, which aimed to defend Christianity against liberalism. The writers of The Fundamentals (1910–1915), including Torrey, proposed harmony between science and Christianity by accepting the standard geological ages and by offering some criticisms of Darwinism.... 

Larsen, Timothy. “‘War Is Over, If You Want It’: Beyond the Conflict between Faith and Science,” PSCF 60 (2008): 147. "The purpose of this article is to help emerging scholars, especially in the sciences, to reframe the issue of the relationship between faith and learning in a productive way. While critiques of the warfare model exist in the specialized literature of the history of science, the presumption of conflict continues to dominate in the media and in popular conversations in both secular and religious contexts. As a result, young scholars have often imbibed this model themselves as an accurate portrait of the way things are, and they usually do not have a clear, up-to-date reflection on the relationship of faith and learning to put in its place."

Terry G. Pence,"Charles S. Pierce, Scientific Method, and God,"PSCF 49.3:156-161(9/1997). Charles S. Peirce, the founder of American pragmatism, wrote extensively about a form of inference called abduction, or more familiarly, reasoning to the best explanation. He claimed that it was essential to the growth of science. In this article, I examine Peirce's theory of abduction to see if he thinks that this essential form of reasoning precludes appeals to a supernatural agency. I argue that it does not and that Peirce himself defends just such an abductive inference in his "A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God."

 Twentieth century

Haas, John W., Jr., Essay Review: Bowler, Peter J. Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain PSCF 55.1:45-51 (3/2003) Belfast University historian of science Peter Bowler has turned from his studies of Victorian and early-twentieth-century biology to examine the science-religion literature of this period. Rather than peaceful somnolence, he has uncovered evidence of a “lively discussion” and constructs a more detailed (and more inclusive) picture than previously has been drawn.

Karl Giberson & Donald Yerxa,  Inherit the Monkey Trial  Scopes Trial historian Ed Larson explains  why Christians should be taught evolution. Christianity Today  Archive with useful links on the trial.

Late Twentieth  and Early Twenty First Centuries

_{F. Alton Everest, The American Scientific Affiliation: Its Growth and Early Development, ASA Press (1986) A history in word and pictures of the first 45 years from the eyes of the founding father..}

Yerxa, "Donald A.,  Phillip Johnson and the Origins of the Intelligent Design Movement,  1977-1991, PSCF 54 (March 2002): 47 [PDF]

Davis Young, "History of the Collapse of "Flood Geology" and a Young Earth," (adapted from The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence Eerdmans, 1995)
"...I do not consider it a violation of the integrity of the biblical text to suppose that the biblical flood account uses a major Mesopotamian event in order to make vital theological points concerning human depravity, faith, and obedience and divine judgment, grace, and mercy. The evangelical church serves no good end by clinging to failed interpretations of the Bible and refusing to explore new directions. Christian scholars have an obligation to lead the way toward a renewed reverence for God's truth wherever it can be found. Conservative scholars must develop a more aggressive attitude toward creation and encourage the church's youth to enter not only the pastorate, mission work, and theology but also such fields as the natural sciences, archeology, anthropology, and the social sciences."

Thematic Studies

       MINI-SYMPOSIUM             

    Darwin Studies 

    Miscellaneous Darwin Papers 

Edward O. Dodson, "Toldot Adam: A Little-Known Chapter in the History of Darwinism,"  PSCF 52 (Mar 2000):47-54. In his autobiography, Darwin mentioned an essay in Hebrew which showed that his theory of evolution "is contained in the Old Testament." Naphtali Halevi (or Lewy) argued in Toldot Adam that Hebrew word choices in the Torah favored evolution, as did some passages in the Midrash Rabbah and the Talmud. Although his argument is not entirely convincing, he proposed interesting alternative interpretations of many biblical texts. Collectively, they suggest that the supposed irreconcilable contradictions between evolution and biblical creation are exaggerated because of an inadequate understanding of the Hebrew text.

Lamoureux, Denis O., Theological Insights from Charles Darwin PSCF 56.1:2-12 (3/2004).

Sara Joan Miles, "Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design" PSCF  53.3:196-201 (9/2001).

Other Topics

Harry Cook, "Wonderful Life: Burgess Shale and the History of Biology," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 47 (September 1995): 159-163.

Edward B. Davis, "A Whale of a Tale: Fundamentalist Fish Stories,"PSCF, 43 (December 1991): 224. According to a persistent story, exactly one hundred years ago a sailor named James Bartley was swallowed by a sperm whale off the Falkland Islands. About thirty-six hours later his fellow sailors found him, unconscious but alive, inside the belly of the animal. What follows is the result of my attempt to uncover the real story, as well as the story of the story--how this whale of a tale found its way into the fundamentalist apologetic tradition, as well as a sizeable number of conservative biblical commentaries.

Christopher B. Kaiser, "The Creationist Tradition in the History of Science," PSCF 45 (June 1993): 80 -89. The historical relationship between Christianity and the physical sciences is often construed in terms of the causes of the origin of modern Western science. My own context in the study of history leads me to ask the question in terms of the meaning of science and criteria for legitimate scientific work. In order to answer these questions, materials are derived from a survey of the early Jewish and Christian beliefs about creation and their implications for life and work- what has been termed the "creationist tradition." The historic creationist tradition is summarized here under four headings. Three of these pertain to our view of the world and give theological meaning to natural science. The fourth pertains to our ministry in the world and provides important social and ethical criteria.

Lindberg, David C. & Numbers, Ronald L., "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the  Encounter between Christianity and Science" PSCF 39.3:140-149 (9/1987) ASA Classic

 Ronald L. Numbers, ed.,  Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion, Harvard University Press, 2009. Review   "Numbers is to be congratulated in bringing together a good deal of relevant and interesting historical data, which show (as one would expect) that the inter-relationships between science and religion are far more complicated than religion’s critics would have us believe. Half the job in reconciling science and religion may be done, but it is only half. The more difficult part is to decide how the two forms of experience should relate to-day; and for that we need more than Numbers." Anthony O’Hear

Andrew White,  The Warfare Of Science With Theology, (1896) (e-book). A free classic.

The Alfred Russel Wallace Page Web site dedicated to celebrating the life and work of the English naturalist, evolutionist, and social critic  Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)