WORDS.TXT 8-16-95 3rd edition
| Bars indicate changes since the 2nd edition.
Thanks to several for recent contributions & suggestions.
This file is uploaded to Compuserve
Forum by John W. Burgeson, 73531,1501
We have to use words to think with. We have to use words to
communicate with. Bacon observed, that when two people did not
agree on something, it was often because they were defining words
differently. This happens very often in cyberspace; taking a real
effort to avoid. This file, perhaps, will help matters. Definitions
are taken from the AHD (1992) and other places. This is a
word list of terms often used in the Religious Issues
forum, particularly in the "Religion & Science" section. It is
continuously tentative. Comments on it are always in order.
John W. Burgeson (Burgy)
Earle Landry sent me this quotation; it seems appropriate:
"Every science must devise its own instruments. The tool
required for philosophy is language. Thus philosophy redesigns
language in the same way that, in a physical science, pre-existing
appliances are redesigned. It is exactly at this point that the
appeal to facts is a difficult operation."
Whitehead: Process and Reality, p.11
He also suggested the following reference works:
A Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd Edition)
by Anthony Flew
Dictionary of Philosophy
by Dagobert D. Runes
Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy
by Geddes MacGregor
The Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Paul Edwards, Editor-in-Chief
I also recommend "The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy," by Simon
Blackburn, Oxford University Press, 1994. A number of the definitions
here are taken from this jewel.
Also -- "Masterpieces of World Philosophy," Frank N. Magill, Editor.
HarperCollins, 1990. This has about 100 short articles on many of
the world's leading philosophers. Not all. An earlier (1961) edition
is better -- if you can find it -- having substantially more coverage.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
A fortiori: All the more so. If all donkeys bray, then a fortiori
all young donkeys bray.
A posteriori: Argue from effects to cause.
A priori: Argue from cause to effects.
|abduction -- the process of using evidence to reach a wider conclusion
|(introduced by Peirce)
|Aborigines. Persons of little worth found cumbering the soil of
|a newly discovered country. They soon cease to cumber; they fertilize.
|(Bierce)
Absolutism: The view that there are no restrictions on the rights
and powers of the government.
|Absurdity. A statement or belief manifestly inconsistent
|with one's own opinion. (Bierce)
|Absurd. Any belief that is obviously untenable.
Acceptance: ... philosophers have been led to distinguish
acceptance from belief for various reasons...In the philosophy of
science a variety of anti-realist positions may counsel one to
accept a scientific theory... without going so far as to believe
it..
Accident: ...a property of a thing which is no part of the essence
of the thing
|Accident. An inevitable occurrence due to the action
|of immutable natural laws. (Bierce)
|Accidentalism: ==The idea that humanity is the result of a process that
|did not consciously set out to create us - that we're just a lucky
|accident of a few billion years of natural selection. One may have
|full acceptance of the ToE, without also accepting accidentalism.
|Logically, the ToE is a necessary condition for accidentalism, but
|not a sufficient condition. Dawkins, Provine and Gould argue otherwise.
Accidentalism: Theory that the flow of events is
unpredictable...for Epicureans, that mental events are specifically
unpredictable...
Action: What an agent does, as opposed to what happens to an agent
(or what happens in an agent's head). Describing events that happen
does not in itself permit us to talk of rationality and intention...
Action at a distance: Contested concept in the history of
physics... 'matter cannot act where it is not'...
|Act utilitarianism. View that the measure of the value of an act
|is the amount by which it increases general utility or happiness.
Ad hoc hypothesis: Hypothesis adopted purely for the purpose of
saving a theory from difficulty or refutation, but without any
independent rationale.
Aetiology: The assigning of cause(s)
Affirming the antecedent: Valid argument that from p, and if p then
q, it follows that q.
Affirming the consequent: Invalid argument that from if p then q
and q, it follows that p.
|agape. Highest form of love, adapted by the Christian community
|from a Greek term. Other terms are Eros (sexual love) and philios
|(brotherly love). Agape refers to unconditional love, love that has
|only the concerns of the one loved in mind.
Agent: One who acts.
agnostic
noun
(1) One who believes that there can be no proof of the existence of
God but does not deny the possibility that God exists.
Notes: An agnostic does not deny the existence of God and heaven,
for example, but rather holds that one cannot know for certain if
they exist or not. The term agnostic was fittingly coined by the
19th-century British scientist Thomas H. Huxley, who believed that
only material phenomena were objects of exact knowledge. He made up
the word from the prefix a-, meaning "without, not," as in amoral,
and the noun Gnostic. Gnostic is related to the Greek word gnosis,
"knowledge," which was used by early Christian writers to mean
"higher, esoteric knowledge of spiritual things"; hence, Gnostic
referred to those with such knowledge. In coining the term
agnostic, Huxley was considering as "Gnostics" a group of his
fellow intellectuals-- "ists," as he called them--who had eagerly
embraced various doctrines or theories that explained the world to
their satisfaction. Because he was a "man without a rag of a label
to cover himself with," Huxley coined the term agnostic for
himself, its first published use being in 1870.
Agnosticism: The view that some proposition is not known, and
perhaps cannot be known to be true or false.
agnosticism
(1) The doctrine that certainty about first principles or absolute
truth is unattainable and that only perceptual phenomena are
objects of exact knowledge. (2) The belief that there can be no
proof either that God exists or that God does not exist.
|Akrasia -- Weakness of will; knowing what it is best to do,
|one does something else.
|Allele. Two or more genes that can occur as alternatives and code for
|different versions of the same heiritable characteristic.
Altruism: Disinterested concern for the welfare of another...
|Questions include the reality of altruism, and its value.
|A cornerstone of Christian ethics, it is unknown in Greek thought.
American Scientific Affiliation (ASA). 55 Market St. Ipswitch, MA 01938.
This membership organization is comprised of people, primarily in
the U.S.A., with commitments both to science and to the Christian
Faith. A quarterly journal, PERSPECTIVES, is published, in which
variations of Theistic Evolution and Progressive Creation are
frequently discussed; also questions of ethical concern.
|Ambiguous Middle, fallacy of -- The flaw in a syllogism due to an ambiguity
|in the middle term. All men are rakes
| Rakes are useful in the garden
| Therefore men are useful in the garden.
amoral
adjective
(1) Not admitting of moral distinctions or judgments; neither moral nor
immoral. (2) Lacking moral sensibility; not caring about
right and wrong.
|Amphiboly. A sentence permitting different interpretations.
| She suffered a bad taxpayer's dream.
|Dream of a bad taxpayer, or a bad dream of a taxpayer?
|Amplitive argument. An argument whose conclusions go beyond its premises.
|Most reasoning, on things that interest us, qualify. (Peirce)
Anarchism: The doctrine that human communities can and should
|flourish without government. Violent government overthrow is usually,
|but not always, associated with advocates.
|Animal thought. The example of Chrysippus' dog illustrates. The dog,
|tracking a prey, comes to a three way exit. Snifss 1 and 2; finds no scent;
|immediately charges down exit 3 without sniffing. Discueed by Philo,
|Plutarch, Aquinas, Montaigne, Descartes and others.
|Anosognosia. Failure to be aware of a defect. Unable, for instance, to see
|colors but unaware that the capacity is gone. Anton's syndrome -- denial
|of blindness by those who have lost their sight.
anthropic
Of or relating to human beings or the era of human life.
Anthropic principle: ...allows explanation of some feature of the
observed universe by pointing out that did it not obtain we would
not be here to be remarking on it...(why do I always see roads when
I go driving?)...
|Anthropocentric. Any view magnifying the importance of human beings
|in the cosmos.
|Anthropomorphism. The representation of God,
| or nature
| or animals
|as having human form, or human thoughts and intentions.
Argument from the Heap: (from Anthony Flew): A line of (usually
fallacious) reasoning which seeks to take advantage of a
(presumably) "fuzzy" area between two extremes; the claimant will
say that, since the decisions to be made are so small as to be
virtually indistinguishable, no distinctions can be made.
|Apathy. Derided by sports coaches, some philosophies give it a good press.
|Apodeictic. Necessarily true. Certain beyond dispute.
|Apologetics. In theology, the attempt to show that a faith is either
|provable by reason, or at least consistent with reason.
|Argumentum ad ignorantium -- X is true because it has not been proven false.
|Argumentum ad baculum -- X is true because you will be bashed for not
|believing in it. (baculum == cudgel or club)
|Argumentum ad hominem -- X is false because its proponent is a fool or
|villian.
|Argumentum ad misericordiam -- X is true because of sympathy.
|Argumentum ad populum -- X is true because it agrees with our predjuces.
Argumentum ad Verecundiam - the Latin name for the
formal fallacy of *appeal to authority.* It's an argument that a claim is
|true because some person or authority, speaking outside its legitimate
|area, says so.
Aristotle, ; 384-322 b.c.
(1) Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the
Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics,
natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced
Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows
empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the
essential method of rational inquiry.
artifact
noun
(1) An object produced or shaped by human craft, especially a tool,
a weapon, or an ornament of archaeological or historical interest.
(2) A typical product or result: "The very act of looking at a
naked model was an artifact of male supremacy" Source: Philip Weiss
(3) (Biology) A structure or substance not normally present but
produced by an external agent or action, such as a structure seen
in a microscopic specimen after fixation that is not present in the
living tissue.
|Aseity. The God-like characteristic of being absolutely independent
|of other things.
atheist
One that disbelieves or denies the existence of God or gods.
|See the Free Thought section of Compuserve's RELIGION Forum for detail
|Atman. In Buddhism, the self or soul, lying behind the empirical self.
|Autological -- a word that refers to itself. "English" is an English word.
|"Short" is a short word.
|Autonomy. The capacity for self-government. An agent is autonomous
|if his actions are truly his own. This concept forms a cornerstone
|of Kant's ethical theory.
|Avowal. A speech act thought of as an expression of a state of mind,
|rather than a description of anything. Wittgenstein: "'I am in pain'"
|is not descriptive of an inner mental state, but is a behaviour
|symptomatic of such a state."
|Axiology: The study of values.
Axiom: A self-evident/universally recognized truth.
Belief: To believe a proposition is to hold it to be true...
:Bacon, Francis. 1561-1626. Early philosopher of science.
|Bacon, Roger. 1214-1292. Early English scientist -- invented spectacles.
|Barth, Karl. 1886-1968. Protstant theologian -- asserted the denial of
|the possibility of attaining any knowledge of God by the use of
|reason. (i.e.denail of natural theology). Crisis theology.
|Baconian method. The method of induction advocated by Francis Bacon.
|Beauty (Plato). The perception of beauty induces a recollection of
|previous acquaintance with the real, the universal, the "forms."
|Belief. To believe a proposition is to hold it to be true.
|Bigot. One who is obstinately and zealously attached to an opinion
|that you do not entertain. (Bierce)
Black Box Theory: (later)
|Brain. An apparatus by which we think we think. (Bierce)
Buddha: An adjective, not a noun. One who is on the way.
Burden of proof: ...A certain amount of philosophical jockeying
consists of trying to shift it!
Categorical Imperative: See Kant.
|Certainty: The enemy of truth. Judge Learned Hand observed on one
|occasion that "The spirit of liberty is the spirit which is not
|too sure it is right.
|Childhood. The period of human life intermediate between the
|idiocy of infancy and the folly of youth -- two removes from
|the sin of manhood and three from the remorse of age. (Bierce)
Christian
adjective
(1) Professing belief in Jesus as Christ or following the religion
based on the life and teachings of Jesus. (2) Relating to or
derived from Jesus or Jesus's teachings. (3) Manifesting the
qualities or spirit of Jesus; Christlike. (4) Relating to or
characteristic of Christianity or its adherents. (5) Showing a
loving concern for others; humane.
noun
(1) One who professes belief in Jesus as Christ or follows the
religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus. (2) One who
lives according to the teachings of Jesus.
Christianity
noun
(1) The Christian religion, founded on the life and teachings of
Jesus. (2) Christians as a group; Christendom. (3) The state or
fact of being a Christian.
Consequentialist norm: Based on presumption that rightness,
goodness, value and praiseworthiness follow from the sort of
reality that comes into being following a given action or set of
actions. Not the act, but the outcome.
Subgroups: Pragmatism. Prudentialism.
|Conservative. A statesman who is enamored of existing evils,
|as distinguished from the Liberal, who wishes to replace
|them with others. (Bierce)
Contradiction: A logical relationship between A and B such that if
A is true, B cannot be true, and vice-versa.
(Logical categories apply only to language, not to life).
Converse fallacy of the accident: The fallacy of taking out a
needed qualification. "If it is always permissible to kill in war,
then it is always permissible to kill."
creation
noun
(1) (a) The act of creating. (b) The fact or state of having been
created. (2) The act of investing with a new office or title. (3)
(a) The world and all things in it. (b) All creatures or a class of
creatures. (4) Creation. (Theology) The act of God by which the
world was brought into existence. Often used with the. (5) An
original product of human invention or artistic imagination: the
latest creation in the field of computer design.
creation science
noun
(1) An effort to give scientific proof for the account of the
creation of the universe given at the beginning of the Bible.
creationism
noun
(1) The position that the account of the creation of the universe
given at the beginning of the Bible is literally true. (AHD)
A better term for this would be "Young Earth Creationism" (YEC).
Still another -- "Fiat Creationism."
Creationism: A view held by all Christians.
No position on "how."
Theistic Evolutionists -- evolution is the mechanism
Progressive creationists -- deny macroevolution as a general case
-- postulate intermittent or continuous creation
-- Accept old-earth position entirely
-- humanity in particular a unique creation
Fiat creationists -- deny macroevolution as a general case
-- postulate "sudden" 6-day creation
-- usually 20,000 years (or less) ago
-- humanity in particular a unique creation
Credulism: The view, apparently held by some, that what they
are told, or read, or hear, must be truth. See also
"Incredulism."
credulity
(1) A disposition to believe too readily. Gullibility.
|Cynic. A blackguard whose faulty vision sees things as they
|are, not as they ought to be. (Bierce)
Darwinism
noun
(1) A theory of biological evolution developed by Charles Darwin
and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop
through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that
increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and
reproduce. Also called DARWINIAN THEORY.
Dar"winist noun, Dar'winis"tic adjective
|defeasible
|Capable of being annulled or invalidated.
deism
noun
(1) The belief, based solely on reason, in a God who created the
universe and then abandoned it, assuming no control over life,
exerting no influence on natural phenomena, and giving no
supernatural revelation.
Deontological norm: Based on presumption that there is something
in the nature of things that makes actions right or wrong in a
way that can be drawn up into a code; therefore actions are right
or wrong in and of themselves. Not the outcome, but the act.
design
verb transitive
(1) (a) To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent: design a good
excuse for not attending the conference. (b) To formulate a plan
for; devise: designed a marketing strategy for the new product.
(2) To plan out in systematic, usually graphic form: design a
building; design a computer program. (3) To create or contrive for
a particular purpose or effect: a game designed to appeal to all
ages. (4) To have as a goal or purpose; intend. (5) To create or
execute in an artistic or highly skilled manner.
verb intransitive
(1) To make or execute plans. (2) To have a goal or purpose in
mind. (3) To create designs.
noun
(1) (a) A drawing or sketch. (b) A graphic representation,
especially a detailed plan for construction or manufacture. (2)
The purposeful or inventive arrangement of parts or details: the
aerodynamic design of an automobile; furniture of simple but
elegant design. (3) The art or practice of designing or making
designs. (4) Something designed, especially a decorative or an
artistic work. (5) An ornamental pattern. See FIGURE (6) A basic
scheme or pattern that affects and controls function or
development: the overall design of an epic poem. (7) A plan; a
project. See PLAN (8) (a) A reasoned purpose; an intent: It was her
design to set up practice on her own as soon as she was qualified.
(b) Deliberate intention: He became a photographer more by accident
than by design. (9) Often designs. A secretive plot or scheme:
He has designs on my job.
designer
noun
(1) One that produces designs: a book designer; a dress designer.
adjective
(1) Bearing the name, signature, or identifying pattern of a
specific designer: designer luggage; designer clothing. (2)
Conceived or created by a designer.
Diplomacy: The art of saying 'Nice Doggy' until you find a rock. J Buell.
|Edible. Good to eat, and wholesome to digest, as a worm to a toad,
|a toad to a snake, a snake to a pig, a pig to a man,
|and a man to a worm. (Bierce)
|Education. That which discloses to the wise and disguises from the
|foolish their lack of understanding. (Bierce)
|Effect. The second of two phenomena which always occur together in
|the same order. The first, called a Cause, is said to generate the
|other -- which is no more sensible than it would be for one who has
|never seen a dog except in pursuit of a rabbit to declare the
|rabbit the cause of the dog. (Bierce)
empirical
adjective
(1) (a) Relying on or derived from observation or experiment:
empirical results that supported the hypothesis. (b) Verifiable or
provable by means of observation or experiment: empirical laws.
(2) Guided by practical experience and not theory, especially in
medicine.
empiricism
noun
(1) The view that experience, especially of the senses, is the only
source of knowledge. (2) (a) Employment of empirical methods, as in
science. (b) An empirical conclusion. (3) The practice of medicine
that disregards scientific theory and relies solely on practical
experience.
|Enthusiasm. A disease of youth, curable by small doses of
|repentance in connection with outward applications
|of experience. (Bierce)
Epistemology: The question of whether genuine knowledge is possible
Studies nature & origins of knowledge
Ethics: A descriptive, prescriptive or proscriptive account of
how norms are, or ought to be applied in a given actual
population.
Evangelical
being in agreement with the
Christian gospel: esp. as it is presented in agreement
in the four Gospels.
Emphasizing salvation by faith in the atoning death of Jesus Christ
through personal conversion, the authority of Scripture, and the
importance of preaching as contrasted with ritual.
Evolution:
There are sub-categories of the term "Evolution." Some people do
not always make these distinctions. To them, "evolution" is a
term which ranges from:
minor variations (my brother and I don't look alike) to
micro-evolution (changes in an organism group over time) to
macro-evolution (amoeba evolving into a person) to
abiogenesis (non-life to life by natural causation) to
cosmology (unfolding of the universe from big bang to today).
Sub-categorization appears to be useful. Here are several:
Micro Evolution - change over time of an organism group
(Not at issue) - variation/adaptation
- small scale changes in a species
- resulting organisms of same complexity
- observable and testable
- example -- peppered moth observations
Macro Evolution - not observable nor testable
(At issue) - one "kind" of organism to another "kind"
dinosaur to bird, fish to reptile
microbe to university professor
Abiogenesis - non-life to life
(At issue) - sometimes called "chemical evolution"
Cosmology - evolution (unfolding) of the universe
(At issue)
Theory of Evolution - Darwinism. ToE.
- covers primitive life to present day
- does not include abiogenesis
- does not include cosmology
Fact of Evolution - The word "evolution" means an "unfolding."
- It also means change, from simple to complex
- Science deals only with natural causation
- Evolution is the only possibility known
- Evolution is, therefore, a scientific fact
- A "fact," in science, is not "truth."
evolution n
etymology L {evolution-}, {evolutio} unrolling
DEF 1a n a process of change in a certain direction
DEF 1b1 n a process of continuous change from a lower,
simpler, or worse to a higher, more complex, or
DEF 5b n the process by which through a series of changes or steps a
living organism has acquired its distinguishing
morphological and physiological characters
DEF 5c n a theory that the various types of animals and plants have
their origin in other preexisting types and that the
distinguishable differences are due to modifications in
successive generations
DEF 6 n a process in which the whole universe is a progression of
interrelated phenomena
evolution
noun
(1) A gradual process in which something changes into a different
and usually more complex or better form. See DEVELOPMENT (2) (a)
The process of developing. (b) Gradual development. (3) (Biology)
(a) The theory that groups of organisms change with passage of
time, mainly as a result of natural selection, so that descendants
differ morphologically and physiologically from their ancestors.
(b) The historical development of a related group of organisms;
phylogeny. (4) A movement that is part of a set of ordered
movements. (5) (Mathematics) The extraction of a root of a
quantity.
evolutionism
noun
(1) A theory of biological evolution, especially that formulated by
Charles Darwin. (2) Advocacy of or belief in biological evolution.
Existentalism: The position holding that humans are self-creating
beings, able to choose their own future such that "essence" is
self-created. Modern example -- Jesse Jackson.
|Experience. The wisdom that enables us to recognize as an
|undesirable old companion the folly that we have already
|embraced. (Bierce)
fact
noun
(1) Information presented as objectively real. (2) A real
occurrence; an event: had to prove the facts of the accident. (3)
(a) Something having real, demonstrable existence: Genetic
engineering is now a fact. (b) The quality of being real or actual:
a blur of fact and fancy. (4) A thing that has been done,
especially a crime: an accessory before the fact. (5) (Law) The
aspect of a case at law comprising events determined by evidence:
The jury made a finding of fact.
Usage Note: Fact has a long history of usage in the sense
"allegation of fact," as in "This tract was distributed to
thousands of American teachers, but the facts and the reasoning are
wrong" (Albert Shanker). This practice has led inevitably to the
introduction of the phrases true facts and real facts, as in The
true facts of the case may never be known. These usages may
occasion qualms among critics who hold that facts cannot be other
than true, but they often serve a useful purpose.
faith
noun
(1) Confident belief in the truth, value, or trustworthiness of a
person, an idea, or a thing. (2) Belief that does not rest on
logical proof or material evidence. See BELIEF See TRUST (3)
Loyalty to a person or thing; allegiance: keeping faith with one's
supporters. (4) Often Faith. (Theology) The theological virtue
defined as secure belief in God and a trusting acceptance of God's
will. (5) The body of dogma of a religion: the Moslem faith. (6) A
set of principles or beliefs.
Faith: 1. A confident belief in the truth, value or trustworthiness
of a person, idea or thing.
2. Belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence
3. Loyalty to a person or thing; allegiance.
4a. Belief and trust in God.
4b. Religious conviction
5. A system of religious beliefs
6. A set of principles or beliefs.
From the Latin "fides," to trust.
Two dictionaries (Webster's 7th New Collegiate Dictionary and The
Encyclopedic Dictionary of the English Language) have similar #1
definitions as above, but leave out "idea". One says allegiance to
a person or a thing, the other says confidence or trust in a person
or thing.
Another dictionary explained the difference between "belief" and
"faith" thusly: "BELIEF may or may not imply certitude in the
believer whereas FAITH always does, even where there is no evidence
proof."
Fallacy of the accident: Arguing from a general to a specific case,
without recognizing qualifying factors. "If people shouldn't park
here, they shouldn't park here to help put out the fire."
Fallacy of the ambiguous middle:
|Fork. An instrument used chiefly for the purpose of putting
|dead animals into the mouth. (Bierce)
gradualism
noun
(1) The belief in or the policy of advancing toward a goal by
gradual, often slow stages.
|Gravitation. The tendency of all bodies to approach one another
|with a strength proportioned to the quantity of matter they contain --
|the quantity of matter they contain being ascertained by the strength
|of their tendency to approach one another. This is a lovely and
|edifying illustration of how science, having made A the proof of B,
|makes B the proof of A. (Bierce)
Hard determinism: to be done
|History. An account mostly false, of events mostly unimportant,
|which are brought about by rulers mostly knaves, and soldiers
|mostly fools. (Bierce)
humanism
noun
(1) A system of thought that centers on human beings and their
values, capacities, and worth. (2) Concern with the interests,
needs, and welfare of human beings: "the newest flower on the vine
of corporate humanism" Source: Savvy (3) The study of the
humanities; learning in the liberal arts. (4) Humanism. A
cultural and intellectual movement of the Renaissance that
emphasized secular concerns as a result of the rediscovery and
study of the literature, art, and civilization of ancient Greece
and Rome.
hypothesis
noun
(1) A tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and
can be tested by further investigation; a theory. (2) Something
taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an
assumption. (3) The antecedent of a conditional statement.
|Hypocrisy: The tribute vice pays to virtue
ICR: The Institute for Creation Research. Box 2667, El Cajon, Calif.
(near San Diego). ICR is the leading apologist for the "young
earth creationist" (YEC) views in the U.S.A. in the late
20th century.
From: Sysop Tom Sims 75300,761 the following gem:
Inconsistentism - belief in a system of beliefs that are neither
systematic nor entirely reliable (ie.. believable) when divorced from
their immediate context and emotional presuppositions; closely related to
cognitive gymnastics and philosophical expedientism. True Inconsistentists
begin with a Premise X (M is wrong or N is right because I have always
assumed it to be) then move to a process whereby they sort out the various
philosophical arguments for or against M or N. When they have found
arguments that support their presuppositions, they embrace those arguments
without investigating their history, their own particular premises, or the
logical conclusions of pursuing them to their ends.
When inconsistencies are discovered they are either (a) ignored (b)
embraced as signs that they must be on the right track ... or else they
would not be having these problems, or (c) lies of the devil.
Inconsistentism is a useful tool for those who are tired of the drudgery
and inconvenience of critical thinking and are looking for a more
comfortable custom-made philosophical environment where contrary thinking
is easily dismissed. It is an ideal approach for nineties-type people.
Inconsistentism provides a virtual cafeteria of ideas and philosophies to
suit the predisposition of the moment. No need to integrate with
Inconsistentism. The key word is: compartmentalize. When plagued with
annoying questions about the application of a given idea to another life
situation, just send that question to another department. They have their
own policy.
law
noun
(1) A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom,
agreement, or authority. (2) (a) The body of rules and principles
governing the affairs of a community and enforced by a political
authority; a legal system: international law. (b) The condition of
social order and justice created by adherence to such a system: a
breakdown of law and civilized behavior. (3) A set of rules or
principles dealing with a specific area of a legal system: tax law;
criminal law. (4) A piece of enacted legislation. (5) (a) The
system of judicial administration giving effect to the laws of a
community: All citizens are equal before the law. (b) Legal action
or proceedings; litigation: submit a dispute to law. (c) An
impromptu or extralegal system of justice substituted for
established judicial procedure: frontier law. (6) (a) An agency or
agent responsible for enforcing the law. Often used with the: "The
law . . . stormed out of the woods as the vessel was being relieved
of her cargo" Source: Sid Moody (b) (Informal) A police officer.
Often used with the. (7) (a) The science and study of law;
jurisprudence. (b) Knowledge of law. (c) The profession of an
attorney. (8) Something, such as an order or a dictum, having
absolute or unquestioned authority: The commander's word was law.
(9) Law. (a) The body of principles or precepts held to express
the divine will, especially as revealed in the Bible: Mosaic Law.
(b) The first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures. (10) A code of
principles based on morality, conscience, or nature. (11) (a) A
rule or custom generally established in a particular domain: the
unwritten laws of good sportsmanship. (b) A way of life: the law of
the jungle. (12) (a) A formulation describing a relationship
observed to be invariable between or among phenomena for all cases
in which the specified conditions are met: the law of gravity. (b)
A generalization based on consistent experience or results: the law
of supply and demand; the law of averages. (13) (Mathematics) A
general principle or rule that is assumed or that has been proven
to hold between expressions. (14) A principle of organization,
procedure, or technique: the laws of grammar; the laws of visual
perspective.
|Lexicographer. A pestilent fellow who, under the pretense of
|recording some particular stage in the development of a language,
|does what he can to arrest its growth, stiffen its flexibility,
|and mechanize its methods. (Bierce)
Liberalism: A political ideology centered on the individual,
thought of as possessing rights against the government, including
rights of respect, freedom of expression and action, and freedom
from religious and ideological constraint. Attacked from the left
as the ideology of free markets, with no defense against the
accumulation of wealth and power in the hands of the few, and as
lacking any analysis of the social and political nature of persons.
Attacked from the right as insufficiently sensitive to the value of
settled institutions and customs, or the need for social structure
and constraint in providing the matrix for individual freedoms.
Libertarianism: (metaphysical) A view that seeks to protect the
reality of human "free will" by supposing that a free choice is not
casually determined but not random either. What is needed is the
conception of a rational, responsible, intervention in the on-going
course of events.
Libertarianism: (political) In politics, libertarians advocate the
maximization of individual rights, especially those connected with
the operation of a free market, and the minimization of the role of
the state. In the libertarian vision, exercises of state power for
positive ends, such as amelioration of social disadvantage through
social welfare programmes, constitute infringements of the rights
of others ("taxation is forced labor"). The state is confined to a
"night watchman" role of maintaining order and providing only those
public services that will not arise spontaneously through the free
market. Reference: Robert Nozick's ANARCHY, STATE AND UTOPIA, 1974.
Liberty: While the protection of the liberties of the subject is
one of the main aims (and boasts) of almost all constitutions,
there is less consensus about what those liberties include, or when
liberty (good) becomes licence (bad). The problem is to define a
class of actions that lie outside the proper jurisdiction of law,
i.e. those which one has a right to perform.
|Life. A spiritual pickle preserving the body from decay. (Bierce)
|Lock and Key. The distinguishing device of civilization
|and enlightenment. (Bierce)
|Logic. The art of thinking and reasoning in strict accordance with the
|limitations and incapacities of the human misunderstanding. (Bierce)
Logic: Theory of proofs.
logic
noun
(1) The study of the principles of reasoning, especially of the
structure of propositions as distinguished from their content and
of method and validity in deductive reasoning. (2) (a) A system of
reasoning: Aristotle's logic. (b) A mode of reasoning: By that
logic, we should sell the company tomorrow. (c) The formal, guiding
principles of a discipline, school, or science. (3) Valid
reasoning: Your paper lacks the logic to prove your thesis. (4) The
relationship between elements and between an element and the whole
in a set of objects, individuals, principles, or events: There's a
certain logic to the motion of rush-hour traffic. (5) (Computer
Science) (a) The nonarithmetic operations performed by a computer,
such as sorting, comparing, and matching, that involve yes-no
decisions. (b) Computer circuitry. (c) Graphic representation of
computer circuitry.
logical
adjective
(1) Of, relating to, in accordance with, or of the nature of logic.
(2) Based on earlier or otherwise known statements, events, or
conditions; reasonable: Rain was a logical expectation, given the
time of year. (3) Reasoning or capable of reasoning in a clear and
consistent manner.
logical atomism
noun
(1) A philosophy asserting that knowledge consists in awareness of
individual facts and in an understanding of the logical relations
among them.
Logical Positivism: An analytic methodology in which all the facts
are held to be reducible to mathematical or other similar means of
expression.
logical positivism
noun
(1) A philosophy asserting the primacy of observation in assessing
the truth of statements of fact and holding that metaphysical and
subjective arguments not based on observable data are meaningless.
Also called LOGICAL EMPIRICISM.
macroevolution
noun
(1) Large-scale evolution occurring over geologic time that results
in the formation of new taxonomic groups.
:Mad. Affected with a high degree of intellectual independence.
|Not conforming to standards of thought, speech and action
|derived by the conformants from study of themselves. (Bierce)
|Maiden. A young person of the unfair sex. (Bierce)
|Mammon. The god of the world's leading religion. (Bierce)
Man: An animal so lost in rapturous contemplation of what he
thinks he is as to overlook what he indubitably ought to be. His
chief occupation is the extermination of other animals and his own
species, which, however, multiplies with such insistent rapidity as
to infect the whole habitable world and Canada. Ambrose Bierce
Maya: The name given to "reality" as an illusion (image/appearance)
in certain Eastern conceptualizations/religious systems.
metaphysic
(1) (a) Metaphysics. (b) A system of metaphysics. (2) An
underlying philosophical or theoretical principle: a belief in
luck, the metaphysic of the gambler.
Metaphysics: The study of the nature of reality.
Subgroups: Idealism: Ultimate Reality is spiritual
Naturalism: Ultimate Reality is physical/material
Subgroups: Ontology (study of being)
Cosmology (study of the universe)
metaphysics
noun
(1) (used with a sing. verb) (Philosophy) The branch of
philosophy that examines the nature of reality, including the
relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, fact
and value. (2) (used with a pl. verb) The theoretical or first
principles of a particular discipline: the metaphysics of law. (3)
(used with a sing. verb) A priori speculation upon questions that
are unanswerable to scientific observation, analysis, or
experiment. (4) (used with a sing. verb) Excessively subtle or
recondite reasoning.
Methodological Atheism -- rule #1 of science
-- dates back to the Epicureans, about 200 B.C.E.
-- "Ascribe nothing to the gods"
-- Also called "Methodological Naturalism"
-- Necessary to avoid the "god-of-the-gaps" trap
-- Rule #2 -- "Consider ALL the evidence." (also Epicureans)
microevolution
noun
(1) Evolution resulting from a succession of relatively small
genetic variations that often cause the formation of new
subspecies.
|Mind. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its
|chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature,
|the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing
|but itself to know itself with. (Bierce)
mind
noun
(1) The human consciousness that originates in the brain and is
manifested especially in thought, perception, emotion, will,
memory, and imagination. (2) The collective conscious and
unconscious processes in a sentient organism that direct and
influence mental and physical behavior. (3) The principle of
intelligence; the spirit of consciousness regarded as an aspect of
reality. (4) The faculty of thinking, reasoning, and applying
knowledge: Follow your mind, not your heart. (5) A person of great
mental ability: the great minds of the century. (6) (a) Individual
consciousness, memory, or recollection: I'll bear the problem in
mind. (b) A person or group that embodies certain mental qualities:
the medical mind; the public mind. (c) The thought processes
characteristic of a person or group; psychological makeup: the
criminal mind. (7) Opinion or sentiment: He changed his mind when
he heard all the facts. (8) Desire or inclination: She had a mind
to spend her vacation in the desert. (9) Focus of thought;
attention: I can't keep my mind on work. (10) A healthy mental
state; sanity: losing one's mind. (11) Mind. (Christian Science)
The Deity regarded as the perfect intelligence ruling over all of
divine creation.
SYNONYM(S): MIND, INTELLECT, INTELLIGENCE, BRAIN, WIT, REASON.
These nouns denote the faculty of thinking, reasoning, and
acquiring and applying knowledge. Mind, opposed to heart, soul, or
spirit, refers broadly to the capacities for thought, perception,
memory, and decision: "No passion so effectually robs the mind of
all its powers of acting and reasoning as fear" (Edmund Burke).
Intellect stresses the capacity for knowing, thinking, and
understanding as contrasted with feeling and willing: "Opinion is
ultimately determined by the feelings, and not by the intellect"
(Herbert Spencer). Intelligence implies the capacity for solving
problems, learning from experience, and reasoning abstractly: "The
world of the future will be an ever more demanding struggle against
the limitations of our intelligence" (Norbert Wiener). Brain
suggests strength of intellect: Anyone with a brain knows that
overwork leads to decreased efficiency. Many of the most successful
people are endowed with brains, talent, and perseverance. Wit
stresses quickness of intelligence or facility of comprehension:
"There is no such whetstone, to sharpen a good wit and encourage a
will to learning, as is praise" (Roger Ascham). He lacks formal
education but is adept at living by his wits. Reason, the capacity
for logical, rational, and analytic thought, embraces
comprehending, evaluating, and drawing conclusions: "I am sure
that, since I have had the full use of my reason, nobody has ever
heard me laugh" (Earl of Chesterfield).See also synonym(s) at TEND
Moral Philosophy: A comparative account which argues for or
against competing norms and normative grounds, with respect to
either an ideal or an actual population.
natural law
noun
(1) A law or body of laws that derives from nature and is believed
to be binding upon human actions apart from or in conjunction with
laws established by human authority.
natural philosophy
noun
(1) The study of nature and the physical universe.
natural science
noun
(1) A science, such as biology, chemistry, or physics, that deals
with the objects, phenomena, or laws of nature and the physical
world.
natural selection
noun
(1) The process in nature by which, according to Darwin's theory of
evolution, only the organisms best adapted to their environment
tend to survive and transmit their genetic characters in increasing
numbers to succeeding generations while those less adapted tend to
be eliminated.
From: Earle Landry 70313,3267 # 855248
NATURALISM, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical monism
according to which whatever exists or happens is NATURAL in the
sense of being susceptible to explanation through methods which,
although paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are
continuous from domain to domain of objects and events. Hence,
naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that
there exists or could exist any entities or events which lie, in
principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation. In all
other respects naturalism is ontologically neutral in that it does
not prescribe what specific kinds of entities there must be in the
universe or how many distinct kinds of events we must suppose to
take place. Accordingly, naturalism is merely compatible with the
various forms of materialism it has been confused with;
materialism is logically distinct from naturalism and requires
independent support unless (as is not the case) materialism is
the sole Ontology compatible with the ubiquitous employment of
scientific method. There is thus room within the naturalistic
movement for any variety of otherwise rival ontologies, which
explains the philosophical heterogeneity of the group of
philosophers who identify themselves as naturalists: it is a
methodological rather than an ontological monism to which they
indifferently subscribe, a monism leaving them free to be
dualists, idealists, materialists, atheists, or nonatheists, as
the case may be."
Arthur C. Danto, Encyc. of Phil, art.
"naturalism"
"1. In general, the philosophical belief that what is studied
by the non-human and human sciences is all there is, and the
denial of the need for any explanation going beyond or outside the
Universe. All such naturalists since Darwin insist especially
upon the evolution, without supernatural intervention, of higher
forms of life from lower and of these in turn ultimately from
non-living matter.
2. (in philosophical ethics) Particularly since G.E. Moore,
the view held by those who, taking the naturalistic fallacy to be
not really a fallacy, insist that value words are definable in
terms of neutral statements of fact - not excluding even
statements of putative theological fact. Earlier, and surely
better, usage allowed any secular and this-worldly accounts of
value to score as naturalistic; including those - for instance in
Hume - which expose and eschew that fallacy."
Flew, 1979, art. "naturalism"
"The view that the universe is self-existent,
self-explanatory, and self-directing. Naturalists generally see
the world process deterministically and man as only its incidental
product."
MacGregor, 1989, art. "naturalism"
"Naturalism, challenging the cogency of the cosmological,
teleological, and moral arguments, holds that the universe requires
no supernatural cause and government, but is self-existent, self-
explanatory, self-operating, and self-directing; that the world-
process is not teleological and anthropocentric, but purposeless,
deterministic (except for possible tychistic events), and only
incidentally productive of man; that human life, physical,
mental, moral and spiritual, is an ordinary natural event
attributable in all respects to the ordinary operations of
nature; and that man's ethical values, compulsions, activities,
and restraints can be justified on natural grounds, without
recourse to supernatural sanctions, and his highest good pursued
and attained under natural conditions, without expectation of a
supernatural destiny."
Runes, 1960, art. "naturalism"
naturalism
noun
(1) Factual or realistic representation, especially:(a) The
practice of describing precisely the actual circumstances of human
life in literature. (b) The practice of reproducing subjects as
precisely as possible in the visual arts. (2) (a) A movement or
school advocating such precise representation. (b) The principles
and methods of such a movement or of its adherents. (3)
(Philosophy) The system of thought holding that all phenomena can
be explained in terms of natural causes and laws without
attributing moral, spiritual, or supernatural significance to them.
(4) (Theology) The doctrine that all religious truths are derived
from nature and natural causes and not from revelation. (5) Conduct
or thought prompted by natural desires or instincts.
naturalist
noun
(1) One versed in natural history, especially in zoology or botany.
(2) One who believes in and follows the tenets of naturalism.
Neo-Darwinism
noun
(1) Darwinism as modified by the findings of modern genetics.
Norm: The name given to more or less authoritative models or
patterns that have to do with how something is to be done or what
sort of principle is to be applied.
Obligation: An obligation has three requirements:
1. A specifiable service is required of one person
2. Two parties -- one to provide; one to receive
3. A prior transaction has created the promise
Ockham William of Ockham also Occam. , William of; 1285?-1349?
(1) English scholastic philosopher who rejected the reality of
universal concepts.
Ockham's razor also Occam's razor.
noun
(1) A rule in science and philosophy stating that entities should
not be multiplied needlessly. This rule is interpreted to mean that
the simplest of two or more competing theories is preferable and
that an explanation for unknown phenomena should first be attempted
in terms of what is already known. Also called LAW OF PARSIMONY.
On: A Japanese term of obligation; no exact English counterpart
One repays the care received from one's own parents by
taking equal or better care of one's own children. The term
carries an idea of both gratitude and justice in passing on
what the present has received in trust. (James Peterson, in
PSCF, Vol 47, #2, page 106)
Pantheism: Having to do with a variety of belief systems in which
the essence of deity is diffused throughout the natural order.
Paternalism: A refusal to accept...another's wishes, choices and
actions for that person's own benefit. Seat belt laws (by parents
to their children -- or governments to the people).
Persuasive Definition: Posing a discussion argument in terms
favorable to one's point of view. "Abortion is murder," is an
example, countered by "Abortion is disposal of excess tissue."
Philosophical Idealism: The position holding that the only
demonstrable reality is not in things, but in the idea of things.
(Plato?) This view does not dispute reality, but holds that we can
not know reality directly. Plato invented the "parable," a teaching
form picked up and used effectively by Jesus.
philosophy
noun
(1) (a) Love and pursuit of wisdom by intellectual means and moral
self-discipline. (b) The investigation of causes and laws
underlying reality. (c) A system of philosophical inquiry or
demonstration. (2) Inquiry into the nature of things based on
logical reasoning rather than empirical methods. (3) The critique
and analysis of fundamental beliefs as they come to be
conceptualized and formulated. (4) The synthesis of all learning.
(5) All learning except technical precepts and practical arts. (6)
All the disciplines presented in university curriculums of science
and the liberal arts, except medicine, law, and theology. (7) The
science comprising logic, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics, and
Epistemology. (8) A system of motivating concepts or principles:
the philosophy of a culture. (9) A basic theory; a viewpoint: an
original philosophy of advertising. (10) The system of values by
which one lives: has an unusual philosophy of life.
Plato
(1) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the
Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of
his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic
dialogues, as in The Republic.
Platonic
adjective
(1) Often Platonical. Of, relating to, or characteristic of
Plato or his philosophy: Platonic dialogues; Platonic Ontology.
(2) Often platonic. Transcending physical desire and tending
toward the purely spiritual or ideal: platonic love. (3) Often
platonic. Speculative or theoretical.
Notes: Plato did not invent the term or the concept that bears his
name, but he did see sexual desire as the germ for higher loves.
Marsilio Ficino, a Renaissance follower of Plato, used the terms
amor socraticus and amor platonicus interchangeably for a love
between two human beings that was preparatory for the love of God.
From Ficino's usage Platonic (already present in English as an
adjective to describe what related to Plato and first recorded in
1533) came to be used for a spiritual love between persons of
opposite sexes. In our own century Platonic has been used of
relationships between members of the same sex. Though the concept
is an elevated one, the term has perhaps more often been applied in
ways that led Samuel Richardson to have one of his characters in
Pamela say, "I am convinced, and always was, that Platonic love is
Platonic nonsense."
Pragmatism: The name given to an otherwise diverse group of
viewpoints holding that a value theory grounded in practical
outcomes (effects) can be formulated and used to decide the truth
of any conception, physical or metaphysical.
|Pray. To ask that the laws of the universe be annulled in behalf
|of a single petitioner confessedly unworthy. (Bierce)
|Presbyterian. One who holds the conviction that the governing
|authorities of the Church should be called presbyters. (Bierce)
pseudoscience
noun
(1) A theory, methodology, or practice that is considered to be
without scientific foundation.
|Rational. Devoid of all delusions save those of observation,
|experience and reflection. (Bierce)
real
adjective
(1) (a) Being or occurring in fact or actuality; having verifiable
existence: real objects; a real illness. (b) True and actual; not
imaginary, alleged, or ideal: real people, not ghosts; a real
problem; a film based on real life. (c) Of or founded on practical
matters and concerns: a recent graduate experiencing the real world
for the first time. (2) Genuine and authentic; not artificial or
spurious: real mink; real humility. (3) Being no less than what is
stated; worthy of the name: a real friend. (4) Free of pretense,
falsehood, or affectation: tourists wishing for a real experience
while on the guided tour. (5) Not to be taken lightly; serious:
We're in real trouble. (6) (Philosophy) Existing objectively in
the world regardless of subjectivity or conventions of thought or
language. (7) Relating to, being, or having value reckoned by
actual purchasing power: real income; real growth. (8) (Physics)
Of, relating to, or being an image formed by light rays that
converge in space. (9) (Mathematics) Of, relating to, or being a
real number. (10) (Law) Of or relating to stationary or fixed
property, such as buildings or land.
noun
(1) A thing or whole having actual existence. Often used with the:
theories beyond the realm of the real. (2) (Mathematics) A real
number.
real"ness noun
SYNONYM(S): REAL, ACTUAL, TRUE, EXISTENT. These adjectives are
compared as they mean not imaginary but having verifiable
existence. Real implies that something is genuine or authentic or
that what it seems or purports to be tallies with fact: Don't lose
the bracelet; it's made of real gold. My mother showed real
sympathy for my predicament. "The general, in a well-feigned or
real ecstasy, embraced him" (William Hickling Prescott). Actual
means existing and not merely potential or possible: "rocks, trees
. . . the actual world" (Henry David Thoreau); "what the actual
things were which produced the emotion that you experienced"
(Ernest Hemingway). True implies that something is consistent with
fact, reality, or the actual state of things: "It is undesirable
to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatever for
supposing it true" (Bertrand Russell). Existent applies to what has
life or being.
|Reality. The dream of a mad philosopher. (Bierce)
reality
noun
(1) The quality or state of being actual or true. (2) One, such as
a person, an entity, or an event, that is actual: "the weight of
history and political realities" Source: Benno C. Schmidt, Jr. (3)
The totality of all things possessing actuality, existence, or
essence. (4) That which exists objectively and in fact: Your
observations do not seem to be about reality. (5) (Philosophy)
That which has necessary existence and not contingent existence.
|Reason. The weigh probabilities in the scales of desire. (Bierce)
|Reasonable. Accessible to the infection of our own opinions. (Bierce)
Reasons To Believe: Box 5978, Pasadena, California 91117. This
organization is a leading apologist for "Old Earth Creationism"
(OEC) in the U.S.A. in the late 20th century.
|Redskin. A North American Indian, whose skin is not red -- at
|least not on the outside. (Bierce)
From: Sean Cavanaugh 70471,160 # 857913
Reductionism:
Here is another definition of REDUCTIONISM, which as Don
pointed out, is one of the most important terms to understand
before understanding the disciplines that make up naturalism. It
is taken from a collection of essays titled _From Gaia to Selfish
Genes_ edited by Connie Barlow (c) 1991 Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. This particular passage was drawn from Ludwig von
Bertalanffy's _Problems of Life_ (c) 1952 John Wiley & Sons:
It appeared to be the goal of biological research to resolve
the complex entities and processes that confront us in living
nature into elementary units--to analyze them--in order to
explain them by means of the juxtaposition or summation of these
elementary units and processes. Procedure in classical physics
supplied the pattern. Thus chemistry resolves material bodies
into elementary components--molecules and atoms; physics
considers a storm that tears down a tree as the sum of movements
of air particles, the heat of a body as the sum of the energy of
motion of molecules, and so on. A corresponding procedure was
applied in all biological fields, as some examples will easily
show.
Biochemistry investigates the individual chemical constituents
of living bodies and the chemical processes going on within
them. In this way it specifies the chemical compounds found in
the cell and the organism as well as their reactions. The
classical "cell theory" considered cells as the elementary units
of life, comparable to atoms as the elementary units of chemical
compounds. So a multicellular organism appeared morphologically
as an aggregate of such building units. Genetics considered the
organism as an aggregate of characters going back to a
corresponding aggregate of genes in the germ cells, transmitted
and acting independently of each other. Accordingly, the theory
of natural selection resolved living beings into a complex of
characters, some useful, others disadvantageous, which
characters, or rather their corresponding genes, are transmitted
independently, thus through natural selection affording the
opportunity for the elimination of unfavorable characters, while
allowing the favorable ones to survive and accumulate.
The same principle could be shown to operate in every field of
biology, and in medicine, psychology, and sociology as well. The
examples given will suffice, however, to show that the principle
of analysis and summation has been directive of all fields.
Analysis of the individual parts and processes in living things
is necessary, and is the prerequisite for all deeper
understanding. Taken alone, however, analysis is not sufficient.
From: Jeff Kramer 75242,2067 # 857332
"[Ernst] Mayr distinguishes three kinds of REDUCTIONISM:
_constitutive reductionism_ (or ontological reductionism, or
analysis), which is a method of studying objects by inquiring into
their basic constituents; _theory reductionism_, which is the
explanation of a whole theory in terms of a more inclusive theory;
and _explanatory reductionism_, which is the view 'that the mere
knowledge of its ultimate components would be sufficient to explain
a complex system'." Source: Steven Weinberg, _Dreams of a
Final Theory_, p.54 (from the chapter "Two Cheers for
Reductionism"). Weinberg refers to Mayr's article "The Limits of
Reductionism" in _Nature_ 331 (1987): 475.
From: Earle Landry 70313,3267 # 856720
REDUCTIONISM:
"1. The belief that human behavior can be reduced to or
interpreted in terms of that of lower animals; and that,
ultimately, can itself be reduced to the physical laws controlling
the behavior of inanimate matter. Pavlov with dogs, Skinner with
rats, and Lorenz with greylag geese have all used lower animals to
illustrate instinctive behavioral patterns that can, by analogy,
be correlated with some aspects of human behaviors.
2. More generally, any doctrine that claims to reduce the
apparently more sophisticated and complex to the less so."
Flew, 1979, art. "reductionism (or
reductivism)"
"Reductionism may take many forms, e.g., in the interpretation
of religion it may take the form of reducing all religious values
to an ethical core they are supposed to contain, or to
psychological values that exclude the consideration of ontological
questions, or to aesthetic values in which religion is recognized
for its worth in producing great art forms. It is a common trap
for beginners in religious studies."
MacGregor, 1989, art. "reductionism"
" Traditionally, the subject matter of empirical science is
grouped into areas of decreasing scope. Physics is thought of as
having the broadest scope because it deals with the physical
properties of all bodies and all bodies have physical properties.
Chemistry is viewed as being only slightly less basic, because all
material substances also have chemical properties; however,
chemical properties are explained by reference to physical
properties, and physics and chemistry become fused at the level of
their most fundamental axioms. Biology is considered to have a
more limited scope than physics and chemistry because it concerns
only those physical objects which are also alive. All living
organisms are physical objects, but not all physical objects are
alive. Psychology is of even more limited scope, because it deals
only with those living creatures capable of sensation, Sociology
in turn is of even narrower scope, dealing only with sentient
beings organized into societies.
Philosophers and scientists have used the term "reduction" in
a variety of ways. Given the above analysis of scientific
theories and the organization of the subject matter of science
into the usual hierarchy, three senses of "reduction" can be
distinguished with some clarity - epistemological reduction,
physical reduction, and theoretical reduction. Epistemological
reduction concerns the proper relation between scientific theories
themselves.
The goal of epistemological reduction is the elimination of
any reference to theoretical entities in scientific theories.
Instead, scientific theories are to be reformulated so that they
refer only to the objects of our knowledge. There is some
disagreement among epistemological reductionists over the nature
of these objects. According to one version of epistemological
reduction, all scientific statements are to be reformulated in
terms of gross physical objects, usually measuring instruments
like yardsticks and galvanometers. Another version specifies
their reformulation in terms of sense data like "red patch now."
The appeal of epistemological reduction stems from the empiricist
claim that all empirical knowledge comes from sense experience;
hence, it should be reducible to it. In point of fact, neither of
these versions of epistemological reduction has met with much
success. Nor do the issues raised by epistemological reduction
have much to do with biology or vice versa. Accordingly, this
sense of reduction will be all but ignored in what follows.
In physical reduction, systems at one level are analyzed into
their component parts and the behavior of these higher-level
systems are explained in terms of the properties, behaviors and
arrangements of these parts. The stock example of reduction to be
found in the philosophical literature is the explanation of the
gross properties of gases (like temperature) in terms of the
movements of the molecules that make them up. Similarly, the
molecular geneticists are attempting to explain the behavior of
genes in molecular terms. In theory reduction the axioms of one
theory are derived as theorems from the axioms of another theory,
and the derived theory is said to be reduced to the original
theory. Again, the stock example of such a reduction is the
derivation of classical thermodynamics from statistical mechanics
by identifying the temperature of a gas with the mean
translational kinetic energy of the molecules which make it up.
Given the preceding hierarchy of subject matters of science,
the results of physical reduction and theory reduction tend to
coincide. Both with respect to the scope of the relevant theories
and the level of physical analysis, physics is basic. Physics
deals with the physical properties of systems from the most
organized beings to the simplest subatomic particles, whereas
biology, for example, deals with the properties of only highly
organized beings. Scientific theories are formulated at all such
levels of analysis from the universe to evolving species to
subatomic particles. A reduction is termed intralevel if both
theories concerned refer to phenomena at the same level of
analysis and belong to the same traditional area of science. If
either of these conditions is not met, then the reduction is
termed interlevel. Hence, the reduction of thermodynamics to
statistical mechanics is intralevel in the sense that both
theories are physical theories, but interlevel in the sense that
the reducing theory concerns lower-level phenomena than the theory
being reduced." David Hull,
_Philosophy of Biological Science_
(Foundations of Philosophy Series),
1974, pp. 3-4
reductionism
noun
(1) An attempt or a tendency to explain complex phenomena or
structures by relatively simple principles, as by asserting that
life processes or mental acts are instances of chemical and
physical laws: "Our educational system has had a dangerous
predilection for reductionism--an addiction to the primary, the
elementary" Source: Frederick Turner
reductionism
noun
(1) An attempt or a tendency to explain complex phenomena or
structures by relatively simple principles, as by asserting that
life processes or mental acts are instances of chemical and
physical laws: "Our educational system has had a dangerous
predilection for reductionism--an addiction to the primary, the
elementary" Source: Frederick Turner
religion
noun
(1) (a) Belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers
regarded as creator and governor of the universe. (b) A personal or
institutionalized system grounded in such belief and worship. (2)
The life or condition of a person in a religious order. (3) A set
of beliefs, values, and practices based on the teachings of a
spiritual leader. (4) A cause, a principle, or an activity pursued
with zeal or conscientious devotion.
religionism
noun
(1) Excessive or affected religious zeal.
science n
etymology ME, fr. MF, fr. L {scientia}, having knowledge,
of {scire} to know; akin to L {scindere} to cut
DEF 1a n possession of knowledge as distinguished from ignorance or
misunderstanding
DEF 1b n knowledge attained through study or practice
DEF 2a n a department of systematized knowledge as an object of
study, such as
DEF 2b n something (as a sport or technique) that may be studied or
learned like systematized knowledge
DEF 2c n one of the natural sciences
DEF 3 n knowledge covering general truths or the operation of
general laws esp. as obtained and tested through scientific
method; {specif} {NATURAL SCIENCE}
DEF 4 n a system or method based or purporting to be based upon
scientific principles
|Scholarly Consensus: An oxymoron.
science
noun
(1) (a) The observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. (b) Such
activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena. (c) Such
activities applied to an object of inquiry or study. (2)
Methodological activity, discipline, or study: I've got packing a
suitcase down to a science. (3) An activity that appears to require
study and method: the science of purchasing. (4) Knowledge,
especially that gained through experience. (5) Science. Christian
Science.
From: Buddy Landry 70313,3267 # 861912
>>SCIENTISM is the view that science is the very paradigm of truth
and rationality. If something does not square with currently
well-established scientific beliefs, if it is not within the domain
of entities appropriate for scientific investigation, or if it is
not within the domain of entities appropriate for scientific
investigation, or if it is not amenable to scientific methodology,
then it is not true or rational. Everything outside of science is
a matter of mere belief and subjective opinion, of which rational
assessment is impossible. Science, exclusively and ideally, is our
model of intellectual excellence.<<
Moreland, ed., _The Creation Hypothesis_
My critique, in part:
Let us take a brief excursion at this point into argument
analysis - I mean about the three negative criteria of the Not True
or Rational. Restated as a positive assertion, they are:
"If something squares with currently well-established
scientific beliefs, or if it is within the domain of entities
appropriate for scientific investigation, or if it is amenable to
scientific methodology, then it is true or rational."
We can list them thus:
1) X is asserted by contemporary science
2) X is an entity appropriate to scientific investigation
3) X is amenable to scientific methodology
This is quite ambiguous. In (1), X could be an event
(black holes), or an explanation (gravitation). The point seems to
be that "it" is part of contemporary science. But an entity or
event that does not square with current scientific understanding is
a cause of excitement in the scientific community, rather than
something to be suppressed. I think that the writer has in mind
explanations that have been rejected by science, such as
creationism, but is trying to make an "objective-sounding"
criterion out of it.
(2) and (3) make the same point with different words. They
suggest that among the full range of things experienced by human
beings, science selects a subset as the "proper" objects of its
method. This is the "science is a game with arbitrary rules" ploy
again. If X is an event in space and time, it is a subject for
science. NOTHING is excluded but objects of the imagination
(unicorns, God, etc), and even they are treated by the science
(such as it is) of psychology.
So what the author is upset at science not taking seriously
is something that (A) is not already a theory or object of science,
and (B) does not have spacio-temporal existence. What could that
be other than religious doctrine? THAT is what has been rejected
as untrue and irrational, not some potential domain of human
knowledge.
From: Earle Landry 70313,3267 # 856155
SCIENTISM:
"1. The belief that the human sciences require no methods
other than those of the natural.
2. In a more general sense, practices that pretend to be, but
are not, science.
In both cases the term is employed only by opponents."
Flew, 1979, art. "scientism"
"A derogatory term used to denote the view of those who
inordinately value the findings of natural sciences such as physics
and chemistry as if they had a special kind of authority beyond
their own fields. The term is sometimes used synonymously with
"positivism"."
MacGregor, 1989, art. "scientism"
[No entry in Encyc. of Phil., but this mention of scientism in
article "Phenomenology":]
"Also objectionable was the so-called "scientism" of the
positivists Mach and Avenarius. Scientism regarded scientific
statements as premises in philosophical arguments such that the
truth of statements in philosophy depends on the truth of
scientific statements."
From: Sean Cavanaugh 70471,160 # 859133
SCIENTISM: The habit and mode of expression of a man of science.
1877 _Fraser's Mag._ XVI. 274 Its dogmatisms on the one
hand,..and its 'scientism' on the other, even when most atheistic,
are tempered with mutual civility. 1895 _Daily News_ 14 Nov.
6/5 By scientism he means to express that change which had come
over the thought of the world in consequence of the wonderful
additions to the common stock of knowledge. 1903 _Contemp. Rev._
May 727 What modern Scientism knows as the Supersensuous
Consciousness.
I found "scientism" described in a book on Science and Religion, so
this description may be biased. The title of the book is THE
CREATION HYPOTHESIS and it's edited by Moreland.
SCIENTISM is the view that science is the very paradigm of truth
and rationality. If something does not square with currently
well-established scientific beliefs, if it is not within the domain
of entities appropriate for scientific investigation, or if it is
not within the domain of entities appropriate for scientific
investigation, or if it is not amenable to scientific methodology,
then it is not true or rational. Everything outside of science is
a matter of mere belief and subjective opinion, of which rational
assessment is impossible. Science, exclusively and ideally, is our
model of intellectual excellence.
From: Buddy Landry 70313,3267 # 861340
SCIENTISM: I sense in this quote the hostility of contemporary
Protestantism toward science itself rather than the abuse of
science. But it is very well done. Subtle. A theologian or a
lawyer has been at work on this one. This calls, not for argument
analysis, but literary analysis. That is, not in terms of premises
to conclusions, but in terms of themes, tones, and vocabulary. A
shift from logic to rhetoric.
This may take more than 20 lines. Print it out and put it
on the back of the toilet. You'll get around to it. Besides, here
is a chance to evaluate an authoritative statement by a recognized
creationism advocate, right?
He begins on a note of exaggerated praise: "SCIENTISM is
the view that science is the very paradigm of truth and
rationality." Perhaps he is going to hearken back to the
pre-pejorative use of "scientism" ... But then comes a long
sentence that makes up the greater part of the definition. It
presents criteria for rejecting "something" as a candidate for
"truth and rationality". It brings us down from the initial
inflated excitement that approaches worship into a dull, negating
state. And it does this, not by argument, but by its tone, which
is elicited by its vocabulary.
It begins "If something does not" and cites three negative
criteria (I assume that the repetition of the second criterion is a
typo), and ends "then it is not true or rational." Reading it
straight thru overdoses one on negatives: "not" occurs FIVE times
in this sentence. Dividing through by negation would yield a
shorter, more readable sentence that would be both logically and
materially identical to the one we have, so the purpose of the
negations is neither clarity nor parsimony. Psychologically,
negations take mental effort to keep track of, and to keep
straight, and therefore slow down and fatigue understanding,
inclining us to do something else. Finishing this sentence leaves
me wanting to read about something other than scientism. This is
pure psychological warfare.
>>><<<
Let us take a brief excursion at this point into argument
analysis - I mean about the three negative criteria of the Not True
or Rational. Restated as a positive assertion, they are:
"If something squares with currently well-established
scientific beliefs, or if it is within the domain of entities
appropriate for scientific investigation, or if it is amenable to
scientific methodology, then it is true or rational."
We can list them thus:
1) X is asserted by contemporary science
2) X is an entity appropriate to scientific investigation
3) X is amenable to scientific methodology
This is quite ambiguous. In (1), X could be an event
(black holes), or an explanation (gravitation). The point seems to
be that "it" is part of contemporary science. But an entity or
event that does not square with current scientific understanding is
a cause of excitement in the scientific community, rather than
something to be suppressed. I think that the writer has in mind
explanations that have been rejected by science, such as
creationism, but is trying to make an "objective-sounding"
criterion out of it.
(2) and (3) make the same point with different words. They
suggest that among the full range of things experienced by human
beings, science selects a subset as the "proper" objects of its
method. This is the "science is a game with arbitrary rules" ploy
again. If X is an event in space and time, it is a subject for
science. NOTHING is excluded but objects of the imagination
(unicorns, God, etc), and even they are treated by the science
(such as it is) of psychology.
So what the author is upset at science not taking seriously
is something that (A) is not already a theory or object of science,
and (B) does not have spacio-temporal existence. What could that
be other than religious doctrine? THAT is what has been rejected
as untrue and irrational, not some potential domain of human
knowledge.
>>><<<
>>Everything outside of science is a matter of mere belief and
subjective opinion, of which rational assessment is impossible.<<
What haughty disdain on the part of science is intimated in
this sentence! Having gathered together what it likes, it despises
what it has rejected. The image of a bigot is clear. No
open-minded person would want to be associated with such an
enterprise of arbitrary exclusion.
>>Science, exclusively and ideally, is our model of intellectual
excellence.<<
It ends with a return to the hollow praise of the first
sentence, emphasizing the exclusiveness of science, and tending our
sympathies to the rejected truths and realities outside the
scientific fortress.
This is a piece of apologetics, not scholarly definition of
a term in current use.
From: DONALD FRACK 74277,3230 # 862052
>> I sense in this quote the hostility of contemporary
Protestantism toward science itself rather than the abuse of
science. But it is very well done. Subtle. A theologian or a
lawyer has been at work k on this one. This calls, not for
argument analysis, but literary analysis. That is, not in terms of
premises to conclusions, but in terms of themes, tones, and
vocabulary. A shift from logic to rhetoric. <<
I've read Joe's submitted definition on scientism and your
comments, and I find myself with mixed feelings. Since scientism
is often (usually?) used as a negative term, the submitted
definition may be fair. If you think the definition should be
neutral (am I right?), then your objections seems to defuse the
general purpose.
scientism
noun
(1) The theory that investigational methods used in the natural
sciences should be applied in all fields of inquiry. (2) The
application of quasi-scientific techniques or justifications to
unsuitable subjects or topics.
scientist n
etymology L {scientia}
DEF 1 n one learned in science and esp. natural science a
scientific investigator
Self-referential -- see tautology
Soft Determinism: to be done
Solipsism: I am the only one in the universe.
solipsism
noun (Philosophy)
(1) The theory that the self is the only thing that can be known and
verified. (2) The theory or view that the self is the only reality.
speculation
(1) (a) Contemplation or consideration of a subject; meditation.
(b) A conclusion, an opinion, or a theory reached by conjecture.
(c) Reasoning based on inconclusive evidence; conjecture or
supposition. (2) (a) Engagement in risky business transactions on
the chance of quick or considerable profit. (b) A commercial or
financial transaction involving speculation.
Supererogatory act: The name given in moral theology to an act
which it would be good to do -- but not wrong not to do.
supernatural
adjective
(1) Of or relating to existence outside the natural world. (2)
Attributed to a power that seems to violate or go beyond natural
forces. (3) Of or relating to a deity. (4) Of or relating to the
immediate exercise of divine power; miraculous. (5) Of or relating
to the miraculous.
noun
(1) That which is supernatural.
From: Earle Landry 70313,3267 # 856153
SUPERNATURALISM:
"That which surpasses the active and exactive powers of nature
- or that which natural causes can neither avail to produce nor
require form God as the compliment of their kind."
Runes, 1979, art. "supernatural"
supernaturalism
(1) The quality of being supernatural. (2) Belief in a supernatural
agency that intervenes in the course of natural laws.
Tautology -- see self-referential
From: Earle Landry 70313,3267 # 856154
THEISM:
"Theism signifies belief in one God (THEOS) who is (a)
personal, (b) worthy of adoration, and (c) separate from the world
but (d) continuously active in it.
According to theism, God is a Subject possessing not only mind
but also will. Being fully personal, he can be conceived through
images drawn from human life and can be addressed as "thou" in
prayer. Theists regard this personal God of religion as the
ULTIMATE reality. In this they differ from such thinkers as
Shankara, Hegel, and F.H. Bradley, for whom personal images of God
are intellectually immature depictions of a suprapersonal Absolute.
Theists claim that God merits adoration (or worship) on two
grounds. First, he is wholly good. Second, he excels men in power.
According to theism proper (or theism in the strict sense), God is
INFINITELY powerful both in himself (as self-existent Being) and,
consequently, in his relation to the world.
Theists hold that God is, in his essence, separate from the
world. This belief distinguishes theism from pantheism, according
to which the world is a part, or mode, of God. According to
theism proper, God created the world EX NIHILO. Admittedly
"theism" is also sometimes applied in a loose sense to the view
that God imposes form on pre- existent matter. But this
application is valid only if the other requirements of theism are
satisfied.
Theism always involves the belief that God is continuously
active in the world. In this it differs from deism. According to
deism - a word first applied to a group of eighteenth-century
English thinkers - God, having made the world at the beginning of
time, left it to continue on its own. Theists (notably Aquinas),
on the other hand, maintain that every item in the world depends
for its existence on the continuous activity of God as the
Creator, so that EX PARTE DEI "creation" and "preservation" are
identical.
Because deists remove God from continuous contact with the
world, they are hostile to the orthodox Christian claim that God
has supernaturally revealed himself in a series of events which
reached their fulfillment in the Incarnation. Hence Toland,
claiming the support of Locke, interpreted Christianity as the
reaffirmation of the truths of natural religion. Certainly the
Christian does not claim that the facts of revelation (or, a
fortiori, the dogmas based on them) can be deduced, or in any way
established, by pure reason; But he can validly claim that the
idea of such a revelation is COMPATIBLE WITH theistic (as it is
not with deistic) premises.
Theistic belief raises the following questions, which (among
others) constitute the "philosophy of theism," or theism
SIMPLICITER, in a secondary, speculative sense: How can finite
terms refer to God if he is infinite? Is it possible to
demonstrate, or at least to justify belief in, God's existence by
reason? Is there a mode of experience which is specifically
"religious"? In what sense (or senses) can one speak of a divine
"providence"? Is the belief in a God who is both omnipotent and
good compatible with the fact of evil?
Philosophical theism has often been attacked. At the end of
the Middle Ages, William of Ockham denied that reason could prove
God's existence. This denial was repeated by Kant. In this
century Barthians, existentialists, and empiricists have rejected
the possibility of speculative metaphysics in any form. Yet many
philosophers and theologians (for example, Etienne Gilson, Jacques
Maritain, E.L. Mascall, and A.M. Farrar) still maintain that
theistic reasoning is both possible and necessary."
H.P. Owen, in Encyc. of Phil., art.
"theism"
"Belief in God, where God is understood to be the single
omnipotent and omniscient creator of everything else that exists.
He is regarded as a Being distinct from his creation though
manifesting himself through it, and also essentially personal,
caring for and communicating with mankind, and infinitely worthy
of human worship and obedience. Theism thus is clearly a central
element in the whole Judaeo-Christian religious tradition.
The philosophical problems it raises are, in the first place,
those of maintaining the various elements of this conception of
deity in a coherent unity. For example, there is the problem of
doing justice to the limitless nature of God without falling
either into pantheism, or denial of human freedom, or the belief
that all concepts borrowed from the finite world - including that
of personality - are hopelessly inadequate and misleading if
applied to God. On the other hand, there is the difficulty of
doing justice to the independence of creation, without thinking of
God simply as a First Cause, who after the initial creative act
leaves the world entirely to the operation of the laws of nature.
Furthermore, there is the problem of reconciling the benevolence
and omnipotence of the creator with the presence of evil in
creation. And, of course, even if the conception proves
internally coherent, there is the question of our grounds for
claiming that anything actually exists corresponding to it.
Flew, 1979, art. "theism'
"Generally used to denote any philosophical system that
accepts a transcendent and personal God who preserves and rules
the world he has created. The term, probably invented by Richard
Cudworth in 1678, Was originally used as the antonym f atheism but
later acquired a more restricted and distinctive meaning in
contradistinction to pantheism, panentheism, and deism."
MacGregor, 1989, art "theism"
theism
(1) Belief in the existence of a god or gods, especially belief in
a personal God as creator and ruler of the world.
theory
(1) (a) Systematically organized knowledge applicable in a
relatively wide variety of circumstances, especially a system of
assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedure devised to
analyze, predict, or otherwise explain the nature or behavior of a
specified set of phenomena. (b) Such knowledge or such a system.
(2) Abstract reasoning; speculation. (3) A belief that guides
action or assists comprehension or judgment: rose early, on the
theory that morning efforts are best; the modern architectural
theory that less is more. (4) An assumption based on limited
information or knowledge; a conjecture.
|Theosophy. An ancient faith having all the certitude of religion
|and all the mystery of science. (Bierce)
time
(1) Abbreviation(s): t., T.(a) A nonspatial continuum in which
events occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past
through the present to the future. (b) An interval separating two
points on this continuum; a duration: a long time since the last
war; passed the time reading. (c) A number, as of years, days, or
minutes, representing such an interval: ran the course in a time
just under four minutes. (d) A similar number representing a
specific point on this continuum, reckoned in hours and minutes:
checked her watch and recorded the time, 6:17 a.m. (e) A system by
which such intervals are measured or such numbers are reckoned:
solar time. (2) (a) Often times. An interval, especially a span
of years, marked by similar events, conditions, or phenomena; an
era: hard times; a time of troubles. (b) times. The present with
respect to prevailing conditions and trends: You must change with
the times. (3) A suitable or opportune moment or season: a time
for taking stock of one's life. (4) (a) Periods or a period
designated for a given activity: harvest time; time for bed. (b)
Periods or a period necessary or available for a given activity: I
have no time for golf. (c) A period at one's disposal: Do you have
time for a chat? (5) An appointed or fated moment, especially of
death or giving birth: He died before his time. Her time is near.
(6) (a) One of several instances: knocked three times; addressed
Congress for the last time before retirement. (b) times. Used to
indicate the number of instances by which something is multiplied
or divided: This tree is three times taller than that one. My
library is many times smaller than hers. (7) (a) One's lifetime.
(b) One's period of greatest activity or engagement. (c) A person's
experience during a specific period or on a certain occasion: had a
good time at the party. (8) (a) A period of military service. (b)
A period of apprenticeship. (c) (Informal) A prison sentence. (9)
(a) The customary period of work: hired for full time. (b) The
period spent working. (c) The hourly pay rate: earned double time
on Sundays. (10) The period during which a radio or television
program or commercial is broadcast: "There's television time to
buy" Source: Brad Goldstein (11) The rate of speed of a measured
activity: marching in double time. (12) (Music) (a) The
characteristic beat of musical rhythm: three-quarter time. (b) The
rate of speed at which a piece of music is played; the tempo.
(13) (Chiefly British) The hour at which a pub closes. (14)
(Sports) A time-out.
ToE -- Theory of Evolution. (Darwin). Assumes primitive life exists
|on earth and presents a theory about how we got here. GToE (Grand Theory
|of Evolution) adds abiogenesis to the ToE.
truth
(1) Conformity to fact or actuality. (2) A statement proven to be
or accepted as true. (3) Sincerity; integrity. (4) Fidelity to an
original or a standard. (5) Reality; actuality. (6) Truth.
(Christian Science) God.
SYNONYM(S): TRUTH, VERACITY, VERITY, VERISIMILITUDE. These nouns
refer to the quality of being in accord with fact or reality. Truth
is a comprehensive term that in all of its nuances implies accuracy
and honesty: "Every man is fully satisfied that there is such a
thing as truth, or he would not ask any questions" (Charles S.
Peirce). "We seek the truth, and will endure the consequences"
(Charles Seymour). Veracity is adherence to the truth: "Veracity
is the heart of morality" (Thomas H. Huxley). Verity often applies
to an enduring or repeatedly demonstrated truth: "beliefs that
were accepted as eternal verities" (James Harvey Robinson).
Verisimilitude is the quality of having the appearance of truth or
reality: "merely corroborative detail, intended to give artistic
verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narrative"
(W.S. Gilbert).
|veridical
|Truthful; veracious. (2) Coinciding with fact or reality; genuine
|or real.
Words: "When the nature of things is unknown, or the notion
unsettled and indefinite, and various in various minds, the words
by which such notions are conveyed, or such things denoted, will be
ambiguous and perplexed." -- Johnson; Preface to his Dictionary of
the English Language.